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National Geographic
20 hours ago
- General
- National Geographic
Who was the first king of England?
A portrait of Aethelstan, who was King of England from 924 until 939 A.D, in a book commissioned for presentation to the community of St. Cuthbert. The famous presentation picture shows Æthelstan, with bowed head, presenting the book to St. Cuthbert himself, and is an important example of the revival of figure art in manuscript painting during Æthelstan's reign. It was written between 934 and 939. Although Aethelstan is generally agreed to be England's first true king, a number of other figures—and factors—make that designation complicated and historically rich. Image by CBW, Alamy Stock Photo Scholarly consensus positions Aethelstan as the first true king of England. But what makes a king? Is it authority over people? Over land? Is it some combination of the two? These are some of the key questions in assessing when and why any monarchy develops. At the same time, these same questions often serve to complicate the identification of the first king of any realm. We need not look further than England to understand why. Aethelstan was crowned King of the Anglo-Saxons in 925 A.D. However, understanding the other contenders for that title—and the history of the disparate kingdoms that became England—adds layers of complexity to answering the deceptively simple question: who was the first king of England? To really begin to locate the first king of England, one must start with the Angles. The name England, after all, derives from the Old English word Englaland, literally 'land of the Angles.' The arrival of these Germanic tribes to what was formerly the Roman province Britannia took place during the 5th century A.D. Alongside Jutes, Saxons, and Frisians, the Angles established settlements in southeast and east England through the 6th century. (A journey along Hadrian's Wall can be like taking a walk through Roman-era Britannia.) With time, Germanic language and culture melded with existing Romano-British practices and traditions. By 600 A.D., individual kingdoms took shape throughout the British Isles. These Germanic kingdoms were formed in accordance with peoples living in an area, as opposed to physical boundaries or borders. In time, smaller kingdoms coalesced to become larger ones, and what's been called the Heptarchy emerged. While the Heptarchy is a vast oversimplification of a complex social, political, and religious setting in England, it was built of seven kingdoms: Kent, Sussex, East Anglia, Northumbria, Essex, Wessex, and Mercia. Each major kingdom included minor kingdoms with leaders of their own, many of whom vied for power within the larger sphere of influence. Rule was established and maintained through reciprocal relationships based in loyalty and protection, as well as an economic system contingent upon coordinated dues and services. According to lore, King Aethelstan ordered the Bible to be translated into the Anglo-Saxon language, the decree of which is depicted here circa 930. The History of England by George Courtney Lyttleton, 1805. Image by Hulton Archive, Getty Images Contenders for the king of England Major kingdoms in England competed for superiority among themselves, eventually resulting in a struggle that revolved around Mercia dominating the other kingdoms through much of the 8th century. This resembled what Bede described in his Ecclesiastical History—completed in 731 A.D.—as a ruler who 'held sway' over peoples outside his own kingdom. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a history of the Anglo-Saxons created in the 9th century, used the term bretwalda to represent this concept, applying it retroactively to Anglo-Saxon kings who ruled as early as the late 5th century. (The Sutton Hoo cache is a time capsule of 7th-century Anglo-Saxon life.) Mercia's hegemony shifted during the reign of King Eghbert of Wessex (r. 802-839 A.D.). Under King Eghbert, Wessex defeated the Mercians at the battle of Ellendon in 825 A.D., after which the major kingdoms acknowledged his supremacy. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle identified King Eghbert as a bretwalda (again with the gift of hindsight), which serves as the crux of his candidacy for first king of England. One additional factor influenced King Eghbert's contention for the distinction as England's first king. Where Mercia had struggled with the idea of peaceful succession, Wessex succeeded. After Eghbert's death, his son, Aethelwulf (d. 850 A.D.) ascended to the throne. A son ascending to the throne upon his father's death infused the principle of hereditary succession in Wessex. Following King Aethelwulf's death, three of his sons served as King of Wessex, ultimately leading to the accession of a fourth in 871 A.D. This was Alfred, another considered contender for the first King of England. (Here's what life in medieval Europe was really like) Alfred, the unlikely king Alfred was never supposed to rule Wessex. When his older brother Aethelred died while campaigning against Scandinavian marauders, Alfred became king. As King of Wessex, Alfred continued defending his kingdom from what the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle termed the 'Great Heathen Army.' Comprising Danes, Norwegians, and Swedes, the Great Heathen Army first arrived in East Anglia in 865 A.D. and, within a decade, the only kingdom they left standing was Wessex. After defeating Scandinavian forces at the Battle of Edington in 878 A.D., Alfred entered into a peace agreement with their leader, Guthrum, formally establishing a boundary between Wessex and the Viking-controlled areas. The latter came to be known as the Danelaw. (Viking myths can be exciting, but are they always true?) However, this permanent Scandinavian presence to the north, as well as continued Viking raids and incursions, prompted Alfred to take steps to secure the kingdom. He reformed the military, established defensive settlements called burhs, and established a navy to defend the coasts of Wessex from attacks. Alongside these efforts, Alfred undertook intellectual activities that have been credited with helping to create the cultural and political identity of England. All of this—and the designation of Alfred as 'King of the Anglo-Saxons' in charters attributed to him—make a solid case for his candidacy for the first king of England. (Britain's first Black queen? The real story of Queen Charlotte.) In this illuminated manuscript from the 14th century, Aethelstan kneels before the legendary English hero Guy of Warwick. Illustration by Peter of Langtoft, Alamy Stock Photo Aethelstan, the first king of England Alfred died in 899 A.D. and his son, Edward the Elder, took the throne. Edward died in 924 and, after his demise, his son Aethelstan was crowned king in 925 A.D. Just like his grandfather Alfred the Great and father, Aethelstan began as King of the Anglo-Saxons. He differed in the extent of his domain, notably after the Battle of Brunaburh in 937 A.D. Aethelstan's authority was never uncontested and, according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, he spent the decade after he became king bringing York and Northumbria under his control. By 937, Welsh kings, as well as those of the Scots and Viking Dublin, united against Aethelstan, ultimately facing off against their common foe at Brunanburh. The exact location of Brunanburh remains unclear, but the fight that took place there is considered by many scholars to be one of the defining events in British history. (England was born on this battlefield. Why can't historians find it?) The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle includes a poem about the Battle of Brunanburh that details how West Saxons slaughtered their enemies, with five opposing kings and seven defiant earls laying dead. The poem explains how 'no slaughter yet was greater made e'er in this island,' an expression of how devastating yet significant the conflict was to the people and land alike. 'Despite the arguments in favor of [other contenders], the weight of the evidence rests with Aethelstan. It was Aethelstan who went to York, defeated the Viking kingdom there, and brought the north (if sometimes only nominally) under English rule,' summarizes Karl Shoemaker, Robert F. and Sylvia T. Wagner Distinguished Professor, UW-Madison History and Law. 'By the end of his reign, he had achieved more bureaucratic and administrative centralization than any of his predecessors.' It was Aethelstan's victory at Brunanburh that extended the King of the Anglo-Saxons' dominion into Scotland and Wales. It also solidified his rule as king of the English. Aethelstan only lived for two years after this fight but, to many, he became the true first king of England with that victory. This story originally published on May 2, 2023. It was updated on July 29, 2025.
The Journal
a day ago
- Business
- The Journal
Trump hails 'wonderful news media' at opening of new golf course during last day of Scottish visit
'WE STARTED WITH a beautiful piece of land, but we made it much more beautiful,' Donald Trump told diplomats, supporters, and fellow golfers at the launch of his new course in Scotland this morning. The visit marked the end of Trump's five-day trip to Scotland, where he officially opened a new course at his Aberdeenshire resort, set to welcome the public from 13 August. The trip provided a break from Washington's political turmoil, including renewed attention on the Jeffrey Epstein scandal. While Trump did hold talks with UK Prime Minister Keir Starmer and European Commission President Ursula von der Leyen discussing a potential US-EU trade framework, some of the details remains unresolved. Still, the trip has been heavy on golf, with the presidential presence likely to boost visibility for the newly opened course. The centrepiece was a tour of the Trump-branded course, designed by his son Eric, and situated on Scotland's rugged northeast coast. Secret Service agents and golfers moved throughout the property as Trump prepared for the ribbon-cutting ceremony, which was delayed more than 30 minutes while he repeatedly practiced his swing, surrounded by family. Trump could be seen practicing his swing on the new golf course. BBC BBC The new course features the world's largest natural bunker, windswept dunes, and sea-facing greens, promoted with a 'focus on environmental sensitivity,' according to a press release. Advertisement Fireworks followed the opening, while offshore wind turbines, once the subject of a failed legal challenge by Trump, stood visible in the distance. Though he didn't mention them during his speech today, Trump had criticised wind power during his meetings with von der Leyen and Starmer over the weekend. Addressing the UK media at the event, Trump took a rare moment to praise the press: 'Believe it or not, I didn't say 'fake news' once today. They're wonderful news today,' he joked. Trump was joined by his sons Donald Jr and Eric during the opening ceremony. Alamy Stock Photo Alamy Stock Photo Trump also spoke fondly of Scotland, noting that his late mother, Mary Anne MacLeod, was born on the Isle of Lewis. 'We love Scotland. My mother was born here and she loved it.' He briefly acknowledged widespread protests against his visit, saying 'it wasn't quite a welcome.' Demonstrators had gathered outside his resorts and in major cities across Scotland, waving Palestinian flags, chanting slogans, and even abseiling from bridges during Trump's visit. Trump ended his remarks by promising a quick round of golf before flying back to Washington to 'put out fires'. 'We've stopped about five wars, that's much more important than playing golf.' Readers like you are keeping these stories free for everyone... A mix of advertising and supporting contributions helps keep paywalls away from valuable information like this article. Over 5,000 readers like you have already stepped up and support us with a monthly payment or a once-off donation. Learn More Support The Journal
The Journal
2 days ago
- Business
- The Journal
Are pharmaceuticals part of the EU-US tariff deal? And what's Section 232 got to do with it?
THE EU'S PHARMACEUTICAL sector could be in line for 15% tariffs as the result of a 'Section 232' investigation in the US. US President Donald Trump and European Commission President Ursula von der Leyen clinched a deal late yesterday that includes a baseline US tariff of 15%. This agreement came just five days before the US was due to impose 30% tariffs on many European imports. Ursula von der Leyen and Donald Trump met at the Trump Turnberry golf course in Scotland. Alamy Stock Photo Alamy Stock Photo However, there was some confusion as to whether pharmaceuticals, which are currently tariff free, would come under these tariffs of 15%. Speaking yesterday, Trump said pharmaceuticals were not covered by the deal. 'Pharmaceuticals won't be part of it because we have to have them made in the United States,' said Trump. 'Pharmaceuticals are very special. We can't be in a position where we're relying on other countries. 'Europe is going to make pharmaceuticals, drugs and everything else for us too – a lot – but we're going to also have our own.' In a letter to the Trade Forum, Tánaiste Simon Harris said his understanding from von der Leyen is that the 'rate of 15% is a ceiling on any potential tariffs that may be imposed following the conclusion of the section 232 investigations'. 'In other words, any tariff would not increase beyond 15%,' Minister for Enterprise and Trade, Peter Burke, told RTÉ this morning. File image of Tánaiste Simon Harris Alamy Stock Photo Alamy Stock Photo He added: 'Von der Leyen has been very clear that 15% will be a ceiling, and Trump has been clear as well that there will be other areas that he can look at on pharmaceuticals. 'Pharmaceuticals are very complex and a lot of the product that is exported over to the US is not a complete product. 'Almost 70% of it is components of the final product that will come together. 'That's why we need to ensure that we have a very keen rate to ensure we incentivise innovation in that sector.' Section 232 investigation On 16 April, the Trump administration initiated new investigations into the imports of pharmaceuticals under Section 232 of the Trade Expansion Act . The purpose of a Section 232 investigation is to determine the effect of imports on US national security and whether certain imports 'threaten to impair' national security. Advertisement Such investigations are said to 'recognise the close relation of the economic welfare of the Nation to our national security'. The investigations also probe whether the 'displacement of US products by excessive imports' could result in 'substantial unemployment, decreases in government revenues, and/or loss of investment and skills'. In the context of pharmaceuticals, the investigation will look at the role of foreign supply chains in supplying the US market and the extent to which domestic US production can meet demand. The investigation will also probe potential attempts by foreign states to exert pressure by exploiting US dependencies in this sector. At the conclusion of this investigation, Secretary of Commerce Howard Lutnick is due to recommend possible trade policy measures on the sector, including the introduction of possible additional tariffs on pharmaceutical products. The Section 232 investigation was launched on 16 April and the Trade Expansion Act compels Lutnick to submit a report to Trump within 270 of initiating the investigation. It's expected that he will file this report within the next three weeks. File image of Trump with his Commerce Secretary Howard Lutnick Alamy Stock Photo Alamy Stock Photo If Lutnick determines that there is a threat to US national security, Trump has 90 days to decide whether he agrees, and if he agrees, whether to act. If Trump decides to act, he then has 15 days to implement that action. However, Trump could decide to enter into negotiations instead, should Lutnick report that there is a threat to US national security. In this scenario, if Trump enters into negotiations and no agreement is made after 180 days, or the agreement 'is not being carried out or is ineffective in eliminating the threat' to national security, Trump will take further action. Earlier this month, Trump claimed that tariffs on European pharmaceutical companies could be as much as 200%. And during Taoiseach Micheál Martin's St Patrick's visit to the White House, Trump said Martin was 'lucky' he wasn't president when US pharmaceutical companies moved to Ireland as he would have placed 200% tariffs on them. Trump's use of Section 232 Trump carried out seven Section 232 investigations during his first term and all but one found a threat to US national security. This resulted in tariffs on steel and aluminium in 2018, though this was later modified and some countries were granted exemptions. For other goods, Trump entered into negotiations with trading partners, though he didn't agree with his then-Commerce Secretary's assessment that there was a national security risk around uranium. In his second term, Trump has commenced Section 232 investigations once more on uranium, as well pharmaceuticals, critical minerals and rare earth elements. He has also revived a Section 232 investigation from his first term on cars and car parts, initiated new investigations on copper, timber, and semiconductors for manufacturing equipment, and also expanded Section 232 tariffs on steel and aluminium. Readers like you are keeping these stories free for everyone... A mix of advertising and supporting contributions helps keep paywalls away from valuable information like this article. Over 5,000 readers like you have already stepped up and support us with a monthly payment or a once-off donation. Learn More Support The Journal
National Geographic
2 days ago
- Science
- National Geographic
Are orange cats really the goofiest cats? Genetics may have an answer.
The best science on ginger feline behavior hints, yeah, there might be something special about them. Orange cats are said to have goofy personalities. Is that really true? Photograph by Christina Gandolfo, Alamy Stock Photo Hanging from lamps, catapulting off countertops, tackling the dog, biting your legs unexpectedly—there are many wacky behaviors associated with orange cats, often captured on TikTok, whose owners swear are extra derpy, slapdash, and yet also friendly to a fault. But scientifically speaking, are orange cats actually any different than cats of other colors? For starters, orange cats are not a breed, like British shorthair or Siamese. Cats of many breeds, from Maine coons and munchkins to American bobtails and Siberians, can have orange colorations. Which perhaps makes it all the weirder that orange cat aficionados claim that orange cat behaviors transcend breed. Earlier this year scientists identified the gene responsible for the orange coat coloration found in cats. It's called ARHGAP36. But as to whether orange coloration also comes with a suite of behaviors or personality traits, much less is known. (Surprising things you never knew about your cat) In 2015, a small study published in the journal Anthrozoös used an anonymous online poll to find that people were at least more likely to attribute the trait 'friendliness' to orange cats than other cat colors. And a larger study published in the Journal of Veterinary Behavior in the same year also found some support to the idea that orange cats are distinct. 'We found that most of the differences are breed-related, but there were also some differences related to coat color,' says Carlo Siracusa, a clinical scientist at the School of Veterinary Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania and senior author of the study. Lilac-colored cats, for instance, were found to be more playful and more likely to experience separation anxiety. Piebald cats, or those with white patches, had decreased vocalization scores. And cats with a tortoiseshell pattern were less aggressive toward dogs. But orange cats? 'It's interesting that you mention orange cats being more outgoing, more gregarious, because actually, we found the opposite,' says Siracusa. 'They were more likely to show fear-related aggressions towards unfamiliar people.' Orange cats were also linked to a heightened interest in prey. Digging into the science on orange cats While Siracusa's research may be some of the best we have when it comes to attributing any behavior to cat colors, he is quick to qualify the findings. 'Our assessment was done through questions sent to owners. It was not done via direct observation,' he says. 'Every time you use a questionnaire, you are assuming the risk of bias, because you are asking people what they think about something.' Therefore, it may just be that the idea of orange cats being extra sassy is so prominent, that bias is showing up in studies. Even with that knowledge though, Siracusa says biases are often grounded in experience. And as someone who handles cats on a regular basis, he has his own experience-based beliefs, such as male cats being more outgoing than females. 'My perception itself, at this point, is a bias,' he laughs. Orange cat behavior—what we do know Even without a slam-dunk study connecting a cat's orange-ness to its personality, there are hints at a biological link. Remember the ARHGAP36 gene that provides orange coloration? Well, it's linked to the X-chromosome. This explains why orange cats are more likely to be male, the authors report in the study published in Current Biology. Female cats have two X chromosomes. And that means they must possess two copies of the gene in order to produce orange coloration. But males, which have XY chromosomes, need just one copy of ARHGAP36, to develop orange colorations. Perhaps this is the real answer to orange cat quirkiness: Siracusa tends to think that, in general, male cats are more outgoing. But, here's where things get interesting. As scientists learn more about genes and how they influence development, they have learned that any given gene is often linked with a variety of downstream traits. For instance, people with red hair have a variant of the melanocortin-1 receptor (MC1R) gene, which may also be linked to a higher tolerance of pain and reduced effectiveness of anesthesia. Now, in studies of humans and mice, the ARHGAP36 gene is expressed in the brain and hormonal glands. Even more interestingly, the cells that give fur or skin color, known as pigment cells, actually begin their development in the neural crest cells of an embryo. (Here's how your cat experiences the world) These cells can also 'differentiate into neurons and endocrine cells that produce catecholamines, which are known to control activity and excitability,' says Hiroyuki Sasaki, an emeritus professor and geneticist at Kyushu University in Japan, in an email. 'It thus seems possible that the DNA mutation in the gene could cause changes in temperaments and behaviors,' says Sasaki, who is senior author on the study. 'I should like to stress, however, that this is just a speculation.' Cats are individuals, too Even if there was some scientific underpinning for ginger cat behavior, the scientists stress, there would always likely be exceptions to the rules. 'This is what we see in the clinics every day,' says Siracusa, who says clients frequently tell him they selected a certain breed or color pet for its prescribed behavior. 'And then they have an animal that behaves in a completely opposite manner, and they are shocked,' he says. (How diverse personalities help animals survive) With nearly 74 million pet cats in the United States alone, you might wonder how it is that anything remains a mystery about the companion animals. But questions that are not linked to urgent human or animal health issues often go overlooked and underfunded, says Sasaki. 'Our world is still full of mystery, and there are so many unanswered questions around us, including those that may seem very simple,' says Sasaki.
National Geographic
2 days ago
- Entertainment
- National Geographic
Who was Nostradamus—and why do his predictions still rile us up?
Michel de Nostredame, famously known as Nostradamus, is depicted on a 1810 wood print by Charles Canivet. The French physician and astrologer is famous for his prophecies, but many are vague and open to interpretation. Photograph by INTERFOTO / Alamy Stock Photo What's in the future…and how does the world end? They're tempting questions—and one that, centuries ago, doctor and self-styled prophet Nostradamus always claimed to answer. His famed predictions range from confusing to creepy, and his acolytes believe his 16th-century predictions still ring true today. His supposed 2025 prophecies include long wars, plague, and a fireball that may destroy Earth. In fact, Nostradamus is so well known for his predictions that a 1672 reference to him is among the first documented uses of the word 'prognostication' in the English language. But the man some think of as a prophet was no divine being. He was a real-life French physician, apothecary, and author whose bold predictions earned him a name in the tumult of Renaissance Europe. Here's what to know about Michel de Nostradame, better known as Nostradamus. Who was Nostradamus? Michel de Nostradame was born in Saint-Rémy-de-Provence, France, in December 1503. (Historians disagree on the exact date.) His parents were the son of a notary and the daughter of a prominent local physician. Nostradame would marry twice during his lifetime, ultimately fathering eight children. Renaissance France, like the rest of Europe, was seized with religious strife during his lifetime, with important ramifications for young Nostradame. His family was Jewish but had converted to Catholicism after Provence became part of the kingdom of France in 1486. Though Jews had a long history in the region, they were told by local authorities in the late 1400s to either convert or be expelled, so Michel was raised Catholic. Young Nostradame studied Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and medicine and began attending the University of Avignon while still a teen. He received his bachelor's degree in medicine in the 1520s, though his school closed because of the bubonic plague while he was a student. Plague doctor and inquisition After finishing his formal education, Nostradame spent time traveling France studying herbalism and treating victims of the plague, one of the era's most feared diseases. Historians believe he was expelled from the University of Montpellier, where he next studied, due to having practiced in the 'manual' trade of an apothecary; they disagree on whether he returned to receive his full doctorate. Practicing medicine in Renaissance France meant treating diseases like plague. But the era's medicine also involved practices now deemed unscientific, like alchemy, astrology, and prophecy. Those practices couldn't save Nostradamus' wife, whose name has been lost to history, nor his two children. They died in the 1530s, likely of plague. (Why plague—one of history's deadliest diseases—still afflicts U.S. wildlife.) The devastated doctor now faced other problems, too. In 1538, he was overheard roundly criticizing the craftsmanship of a religious statue—words that got him accused of heresy and dragged before inquisitors in 1538. A heresy accusation would have destroyed his reputation locally, and a conviction would mean he was executed. But the court acquitted him, and he took up his travels again, specializing in plague medicine. Some of Nostradame's remedies seem to have worked, for he found steady work. The success of some of his remedies likely relied on hygienic practices like recommending clean drinking water. Others, like his rose pills, used herbs and flowers. His practice also would have involved alchemy, astrology, and other esoteric practices now seen as unscientific. But his patients were satisfied enough with the results to spread the word about his skill. Scientific or not, the doctor's plague treatments took him throughout France in the decade that followed—and both his work and his writing began to gain fans in high places. Nostradamus' poetic predictions The doctor and French astrologer, whose name was widely Latinized as Nostradamus, began writing annual almanacs in the 1550s that drew on his supposed 'knack' for making accurate predictions on the events and weather conditions of the year to come. These cheap, popular publications became known for their poetic prognostications and introduced Nostradamus to a wider audience. Nostradamus's fame earned him some extremely high-profile clients eager for a personal and political forecast. In 1555, he predicted that a 'young lion'—thought to be code for the coat of arms of King Henry II of France—would fall in combat, and the next year Henry's wife, Queen of France Catherine de Medici and her son Charles IX visited the prognosticator. When Henry II did indeed die on July 10, 1559 of an injury sustained during a jousting tournament, it sparked what historian Denis Crouzet called 'a sense of imminent catastrophe.' The doctor's vague, flowery language protected both himself and the person at the center of the prophecy from mistakes, humiliation, and accusations of charlatanism, adding to his reputation and mystery over time. As Oxford University historian Michelle Pfeffer writes for The Conversation, astrology and prognostication were commonly practiced at the time and were especially popular among the elite. By then, Europe was already in the grip of religious and social strife as the Reformation unleashed tensions between Catholics and Protestants, social inequality stirred unrest, and prophecies and rumors gripped the public. Many of these divisions would boil over into conflict, including civil war, during Nostradamus' lifetime. (How Martin Luther became the father of the Protestant Reformation.) Criticized by Catholics and Protestants alike, Nostradamus stood by his prophecies, publishing a large book of them and continuing to release his popular almanacs even after being briefly imprisoned for publishing his work without the Church's permission. He died on July 1, 1566, likely of gout. Historians and the public have argued about the thousands of predictions he made during his lifetime—and seemingly validated them—ever since. What did Nostradamus predict—and what actually happened Though Nostradamus' seeming prediction of the death of Henry II gained him fame during his lifetime, his name has persisted thanks to other prophecies some believe have been fulfilled. Perhaps the most astonishing of his predictions was his specific forecast around 1558 that 'The Senate (Parliament) of London will put their King to death.' In 1649 , exactly that happened: Charles I was beheaded for treason after a conflict with Parliament that ended up sparking civil war in England. 'As even skeptics must acknowledge, this is a most remarkable statement,' wrote biographer Ian Wilson in. In the same prophecy, Nostradamus predicted that London would 'be burned by fireballs in thrice twenty and six.' In 1666, a fire did occur in London, destroying huge swaths of the city. People of the era hadn't forgotten Nostradamus's prophecies—and they didn't stop looking for events that potentially fulfilled them in the years that followed. Fans of the far-seeing doctor have attributed everything from the French Revolution ('a married couple' who will result in 'tempest—fire—blood'), the rise of Napoleon (an Emperor 'who will cost the Empire dear'), and the rise of Hitler ('the great enemy of all the human race') to Nostradamus. (Was Napoleon Bonaparte an enlightened leader or tyrant?) But just as many of his vague prognostications have not come true, and there is a long history of political and cultural figures reinterpreting and even misinterpreting Nostradamus to further their own goals. Among those eager to use Nostradamus' prophecies were the leaders of the Third Reich. Propagandist Joseph Goebbels incorporated prophecies into his propaganda, using them to sow doubt and build support for the Nazi war effort. Nostradamus has also been invoked by extremist groups, serving as a way to transmit ideologies to others. Nostradamus is also credited with predicting the end of the world, however that prophecy is yet to come true. He prophesied that in July 1999, 'from the sky will come a great King of terror.' His prediction further fueled doomsday fears as concerns rose about how the supposed Y2K bug would affect computer systems. The French astronomer is still being interpreted, read, and studied by those with an interest in prophecy and prognostication. More than 500 years after his death, Nostradamus continues to entertain and confuse—and interest in his prophecies remains strong. 'Prophecy continues to shape hopes and fears for the future of individuals, groups, states, and the whole world,' writes historian Stephen Bowd in the Encyclopedia of Millennialism and Millennial Movements. After all, who doesn't want to know the future—or think it's possible to see?
