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The Guardian
25-05-2025
- Politics
- The Guardian
Alasdair MacIntyre obituary
In 1981, the philosopher Alasdair MacIntyre, who has died aged 96, tore up the work he was then writing on ethics, and produced what became his best known book, After Virtue. In it, he excoriated current moral philosophy and, indeed, current morality itself, complaining that morality has been cut off from its roots in tradition, and, 'largely thanks to the Enlightenment project', has ceased to be coherent. No longer anchored in the Aristotelian notion that humans have a goal and function, or offering an account of how these are to be fulfilled, it divorces values from facts. Although calling a person, practice or action 'good' or 'bad' seemingly appeals to 'an objective and impersonal standard', said MacIntyre, there is none available. As he had already lamented in Against the Self-Images of the Age (1971), Christianity, Marxism and psychoanalysis have failed to provide an adequate communal ideology. Describing himself as 'a revolutionary Aristotelian', he was also an enthusiast for the ethics of Aristotle's medieval follower, Thomas Aquinas. 'Forward to the 13th century,' was the motto jokingly attributed to him. But by reviving the sort of ethics that identifies 'the good' with human flourishing, MacIntyre aimed to lead us out of 'the new dark ages', presumably into a better future. He influenced the resurgence of virtue ethics and communitarianism (he denied espousing either), and the now fashionable distrust of liberalism, individualism and the Enlightenment. Remarkable for the number of conflicting beliefs that he could, often simultaneously, embrace, he was both Protestant and Marxist in the 1960s, then rejected both creeds, and, in the 80s, became a Catholic; but he always retained his Marxist disgust at capitalism and at the alienation of modernity. MacIntyre was 52 when he wrote After Virtue. In A Short History of Ethics (1966), he he had already berated contemporary analytic philosophy for examining and interpreting moral concepts 'apart from their history', and portrayed how 'moral concepts change as social life changes' – from the Homeric era when to be agathos (the ideal for well-born men) was to be kingly, courageous and clever; through Aristotelian and Christian virtues, which also attuned ethics to an (albeit different) notion of essential human nature; through the Enlightenment's uprooting insistence on autonomous reason; to 20th-century emotivism, which makes ethics merely an expression of personal preference. In the late 70s, MacIntyre read the physicist Thomas Kuhn, who regarded scientific change as a series of 'paradigm shifts' rather than a line of progress, and this gave him, if not a Damascene conversion, then a clinching certainty as to what was so grotesque about 20th-century morality: rather than being settled in a particular ethical paradigm, we operate simultaneously or alternately with several incommensurable moral traditions. 'Imagine,' runs the opening of After Virtue, 'that the natural sciences were to suffer the effects of a catastrophe', that science and science teaching have been deliberately abolished, and only charred pages, disconnected scientific terms and meaningless incantations remain. This, said MacIntyre, is our current moral situation. Like the 18th-century Polynesians who talked of 'taboos' to Captain Cook but were unable to say what they meant by that term, all we have are 'the fragments of a conceptual scheme, parts which now lack those contexts from which their significance is derived'. This is why we regard moral argument as 'necessarily interminable'; we do not even expect to reach consensus. Should we prioritise human rights and/or the general happiness, individual choice and/or the general will, hedonism and will-to-power and/or compassion and self-abnegation? Aristotle's ethics in the 4th century BC had assumed that humans have a telos (function) as rational animals, said MacIntyre. Theistic beliefs – Jewish, Christian and Muslim – complicated, without essentially altering, the three-fold ethical scheme: designed to move us from 'human-nature-as-it-happens-to be' via moral education and moral principles to 'human-nature-as-it-could-be-if-it-realised-its-telos'. Eighteenth-century Enlightenment philosophers, however, in aiming to liberate us from superstition and authority, and to find a purely rational basis for ethics, had stripped the self of social identity and values of any claim to factual status. Thus morality became a set of inordinate commands and, ultimately, mere 'private arbitrariness'. The unembedded self – essentially 'nothing' – is now obliged to choose its own values. Admittedly, Jeremy Bentham's utilitarianism aimed to ground ethics in the 'natural' desire to avoid suffering and maximise pleasure. But 'human happiness is not a unitary simple notion', said MacIntyre, and John Stuart Mill's distinction between higher and lower pleasures only highlighted utilitarianism's failure to 'provide us with a criterion for making our key choices'. MacIntyre was advocating a revised Aristotelianism in which morality is, once again, not a set of abstract, autonomously selected principles but a social narrative into which our own personal narrative fits. Bernard Williams, however, called After Virtue 'a brilliant nostalgic fantasy', arguing that the socially distinct moral self, rather than being a product of the Enlightenment, was already present in Plato and Christianity. MacIntyre's subsequent books constituted, it was said, An Interminably Long History of Ethics, and he himself quoted this with rueful amusement. Whose Justice? Which Rationality? (1988) and Three Rival Versions of Moral Enquiry (1990) reiterated that analytic philosophers purport to present 'the timeless form of practical reasoning', while actually just 'representing the form of practical reason specific to their own liberal individualist culture'. It is impossible, argued MacIntyre, to adopt a moral position except from within a particular tradition. This, since he offers no way of arbitrating between them, would seem to oblige him to say that any tradition would be as good as any other, and he has been accused of being a moral relativist. However, he said that competing traditions share some standards, so that anyone is able to apprehend problems in their own tradition and adopt rationally superior solutions from another, as Aquinas did in integrating Aristotelianism into Augustine's theology, ultimately becoming a better Aristotelian than Aristotle himself. MacIntyre converted to Thomism and Catholicism, attending mass virtually every day, but refraining from taking communion on account of having been divorced. Having refused to accept a concept of human nature independent of history, and of particular practices and traditions, MacIntyre ultimately extended his metaphysical grounding to include, in Dependent Rational Animals (1999), a biological one. He pointed out how the ethics of Aristotle, and later of Adam Smith, David Hume and other Enlightenment philosophers, failed to acknowledge the inevitability of suffering and dependence in human life. Their notion of the human was, at least implicitly, a healthy male; they effectively overlooked women, enslaved people, peasants and non-Europeans. MacIntyre advocated a more inclusive idea of what it is to be human, and an acknowledgment of 'our resemblances to and commonality with members of some other intelligent animal species'; dolphins, he insisted, being closely akin. Neither the modern nation-state nor the modern family, he argued, can provide the right sort of political and social association. What would? MacIntyre sometimes alluded to the cohesive aims of tiny fishing communities and gestured at the desirability of many small utopias. He undertook a three-year research project at London Metropolitan University into whether and in what ways Aquinas's 'conception of the common good of political societies might find application in the politics of modern societies' – the result of which was his last book, Ethics in the Conflicts of Modernity (2016). Born in Glasgow, Alasdair was the son of Eneas MacIntyre and his wife, Margaret (nee Chalmers), both Scottish doctors of Irish descent. Although brought up in London and educated at Epsom college, Surrey, he was proud of his grounding in the Irish-Scottish Gaelic oral tradition. While he was studying classics at Queen Mary College, University of London (1945-49), the surrounding poverty of the East End led him to become a fervent Marxist. His first book, Marxism: An Interpretation (1953), demanded a Marxist renewal of Christianity. Republished in a revised edition as Marxism and Christianity, it was sympathetic and sceptical about both. Even before the Hungarian uprising of 1956, he had left the Communist party, subsequently joining the Socialist Labour League, a Trotskyist group led by the notorious Gerry Healy. He was in frequent debate with the Marxist historian EP Thompson, who used to stick notes on the windscreen of MacIntyre's car urging him to publish his thoughts on socialist consciousness. After gaining an MA at Manchester University (1951), where he then taught the philosophy of religion, MacIntyre lectured in philosophy at Leeds University (1957-61), was a research fellow at Nuffield College, Oxford (1961-62), senior fellow at Princeton (1962-63), fellow of University College, Oxford (1963-66), and professor of sociology at Essex University (1966-70). As dean of students there he opposed the student unrest over the summary expulsion of three students who had shouted down a speaker from Porton Down (the research site for chemical and biological warfare). 'Ironically, [the university's] mistake was to be so liberal,' he said; and declared that it was because the students had 'no real practical injustices to fight against' that they 'had to rebel on ideological grounds like germ warfare and Vietnam which we were powerless to alter'. His attitude was considered disingenuous by some (after all, the university need not have invited the Porton Down speaker); to others, it was part of his characteristically contradictory and fastidiously tailored integrity. Partly due to these ructions, he moved to the US to become professor of history of ideas at Brandeis University (1970-72). He later held professorships at Boston, Vanderbilt and Duke universities, and finally at the University of Notre Dame, Indiana (1988-94 and 2000-10, then emeritus). MacIntyre disdained the class associations of Oxbridge, and loved his involvement with London Metropolitan, where he held a post from 2010 onwards. Before speaking at a conference there in 2007, he was handed pamphlets about a students' strike over a lecturer's contract, and he prefaced his paper with an impromptu diatribe in support of trades unions and workers' rights. The first to raise his hand after MacIntyre's paper was the Socialist Worker party leader Alex Callinicos, who accused him of not being a proper revolutionary. MacIntyre replied that he didn't know how to make a revolution, but it was clear that Callinicos didn't either. He is survived by his third wife, Lynn Sumida Joy, and by two daughters from his first marriage, to Anne Peri, and a son and a daughter from his second marriage, to Susan Willans. Alasdair Chalmers MacIntyre, philosopher, born 12 January 1929; died 22 May 2025
USA Today
06-05-2025
- General
- USA Today
I wrote a book on finding happiness. Even now, it's easier than you think.
I wrote a book on finding happiness. Even now, it's easier than you think. | Opinion By nature, I'm a glass-half-empty kind of guy. But in the two years I spent researching joy, I have to admit my horizons expanded. Show Caption Hide Caption How far did the US fall in the world happiness rankings? The U.S. has dropped to its lowest spot yet on the World Happiness Report. The Nordic countries still dominate the top of the list. Right after Labor Day, I started on my book tour for "The Joy You Make." In one way, it seemed like the wrong time to extoll the virtues of joy. Whether red, blue or purple, we were all facing the November elections, economic worries, the ongoing war between Israel and Hamas, and for me, in western North Carolina, the devastation left by Hurricane Helene. To be honest, just writing that long sentence boosted my cortisol levels. At the same time, I kept hearing from old friends and new acquaintances how much we need joy – more joy! – in these challenging times. I can't forget what Thomas Aquinas, the philosopher and theologian, once said: 'Man cannot live without joy." I believe it to be true – without hope, light or joy – we're lost in the dark, circling the drain. But then the question would shift, as I was asked repeatedly: 'Is it even possible to find joy right now?' Joy comes in different forms that we experience daily Truthfully, I had wondered that myself since I'm certainly no Pollyanna. In fact, I've often been referred to as Eeyore, the gloomy donkey in the "Winnie-the-Pooh" books. That's to say, by nature, I'm a glass-half-empty kind of guy. But in the two years I spent researching joy, I have to admit my horizons expanded. At the outset, I thought joy needed fireworks – like New Year's Eve, July Fourth or your wedding night. As it turns out, big bang joy is just one kind, called 'ecstatic.' There's also what's called 'serene' joy, the kind you experience on a quiet nature walk. There's 'religious' joy, which many experience in a house of worship. There's even 'schadenfreude,' the delight we take in someone else's misfortune, and 'freudenfreude,' its cousin, and the joy we find in someone else's successes or happiness. Opinion: Trump guts Kennedy Center while JFK's disgraceful nephew stays silent The point I came to understand is that there are so many different kinds of joy, both within us and surrounding us. Once we realize that, it becomes so much easier to experience joy on a daily basis, even in times like these. Skeptical? Studies from the recent past, namely during the COVID-19 pandemic, found that a significant majority of us (83% in one case) found 'some' or 'a lot' of joy. One researcher told me, initially to her surprise, that people were able to find silver linings in their darkest times that helped to create joy. Community connections get right to the heart Most vividly, I remember how, during the pandemic, throngs of New Yorkers who came out every evening at 7 p.m. to cheer and clap for the city's first responders. In a poignant video essay, The New York Times captured those early days with photographs and tweets. Among them: 'The cheering that began in late March gives people – from their separate windows, terraces, fire escapes, stoops, and rooftops – a way to connect.' 'Each night, it begins with a few claps, building to a standing ovation for the hundreds of thousands of people saving lives and keeping the city running: health care providers, emergency medical workers, grocery workers, delivery riders.' The common thread I saw in both those images and words was the importance of community or connection, and gratitude. Opinion: Turning 40 wasn't what I thought it would be. But aging has its upsides for millennials. What's making you happy right now? Recently, I asked my social media followers how they were experiencing joy right now. Here's some of what they told me: 'Hand out granola bars to people standing on the curb who need some kindness. … Being kind is magical.' 'Keeping a gratitude journal. I jot down one thing every day to focus on the positive things in my life.' 'Playing board games with friends' 'Making soup and sharing it with friends' 'Baking, hanging with friends who bring me joy' 'Lots of volunteer work with dogs and cats' Then, naturally, there were the suggestions that made me smile if not laugh: 'Listening to the predawn song of the crows and doves.' 'Letting a dog stare at me while I eat.' And, 'Duke basketball' (which I'm sure leaves Tar Heel fans anything but joyful). In short, an easy-to-follow recipe: Connection, helping others, gratitude, kindness, staying active and, yes, consuming lots of calories all help us to find and share joy. Steven Petrow is a columnist who writes on civility and manners and the author of seven books, including 'The Joy You Make' and "Stupid Things I Won't Do When I Get Old." Follow him on Threads: @
Irish Post
02-05-2025
- General
- Irish Post
One chance to get it right: How Caritas Salford is fighting child poverty in Britain
As families struggle with the cost of living, millions of children are being left behind – but one charity is offering hope, dignity and real solutions Bleak Britain (Getty Images) DESPITE being one of the wealthiest nations in the world, Britain faces a growing crisis in child poverty. By the government's own estimation there are about 4.3 million children, 30 percent of the total, living in relative low-income households. In the face of these stark numbers, local and national charitable organisations have become a lifeline for many – offering not just immediate support but also hope for the future. One such organisation is Caritas Salford, a Catholic charity led by its director Patrick O'Dowd. According to their figures over 333,000 children are living in poverty within the area that encompasses Greater Manchester and Lancashire. Caritas – Latin for charity – was explored in depth by St Thomas Aquinas, who saw it not merely as giving alms, but as a deeper expression of universal love. This philosophy is central to the objectives of the charity under Mr. O'Dowd's leadership. 'It's very much about the compassionate love that we show for our brothers and sisters.' Describing his roots in the area Mr O'Dowd said: 'I am a Mancunian by birth. I was born and raised in Manchester, studied in Manchester.' The area has a large population of people of Irish descent, including him. 'The name is a bit of a giveaway. My great grandparents are from Co. Mayo, and we've still got family there. They migrated across to Manchester – actually funnily enough - to the parish where our office is now located north of the city centre, to St Patrick's in Collyhurst.' Leading with compassion: Director Patrick O'Dowd (Photo by Caritas Salford) Speaking further of his link to Ireland he said, 'It's always been a strong influence and that connection of faith, of family and I suppose of fairness too, is something that has always been the spirit of my upbringing and standing with people who are the most vulnerable in society." Along with combatting child poverty Caritas also gives support across a range of areas: 'supporting refugees and migrants to the community and those with broader disadvantages. We work quite a lot with people who have challenges around accessibility and disability and our primary work is very much focused on delivering practical action. We work in schools and parishes supporting children and families, we work with people who are experiencing or at risk of homelessness through our day centres.' Caritas doesn't just help with immediate needs, it also works on larger, longer-term challenges that come with poverty and disadvantage, 'We've conducted a research project, partnering with the Catholic schools across Greater Manchester and Lancashire to discuss and understand with them the nature and the extent of child poverty and also its relationship with mental health challenges that children are facing in schools. The evidence that we've gathered illustrates to us that the problem of child poverty is worsening. Over 95 percent of the leaders in the Catholic schools that we engage with said that poverty has increased for them in the last three years and some of those schools report that over 75 percent of the pupils are affected. That has an obvious connection with the challenges of anxiety and stress and emotional difficulties that are associated with poverty and hardship. And we all know that we only get one chance to get this right for children because the experience that they have in the formative years of childhood goes on to shape and influence their lives for the future.' Speaking about what has impacted him personally, he said: 'I think some of the most disturbing issues that we've had to support people with is where families - have come forward to highlight to us the conditions and circumstances that they're living in. Whether through private, rented, or social housing, and the forms of damp and mould, and the inadequate accommodation that they are living in, which in the 21st century is absolutely heartbreaking.' Support for Caritas comes from the local community, but also further afield. 'We've had a very strong backing from the Irish diaspora over the years, and we're hugely grateful for that,' Mr O'Dowd said. 'But the need remains great, and fundraising is always a challenge. Every donation helps. Just this weekend, we had a runner take part in the Manchester Marathon to raise money for us." No time to stop: action is needed now (Photo by Caritas Salford) When asked what more the government can do to help alleviate the pain of families he said, 'We know times are tough, and we know that the government is stretched - but we really feel there is some practical action that can be taken to help. There is only one chance to get it right for children." Speaking practically, he said: 'One of the changes that we think ought to be considered is adopting free school meals for all primary pupils and we're really pleased to see that there have been some measures around school uniforms, but we definitely need to see an increase in the amount of funding that goes toward supporting children's mental health." On what needs to be repealed: 'The two-child limit on benefits – we believe that's something that needs to be ended in the spending review and also part of the child poverty task force that's going on at the moment.' The Catholic Church is central to the charity and to Mr O'Dowd personally. When asked what sort of person should next lead the Church he said: 'I think someone who is able to call attention to the social, economic and environmental challenges that face people. One of the really great things about Pope Francis is he talked about fraternity – in that spirit of dialogue, and that means also putting ourselves in sometimes challenging spaces as Catholic organisations to enter into a dialogue with people, and not being afraid of that.' Food banks are now a necessity for many across Britain (Photo by Caritas Salford) Looking to the future, Caritas Salford aims to grow and expand its services across the entire diocese. 'Our wider mission is to tackle a range of social issues affecting our communities,' he said. 'We already do a lot of work with children and families, especially through schools, and we're proud of that legacy. But we're also looking to build on it – we know there's a housing crisis, and too many people are at risk of homelessness. So, we're committed to strengthening our response in that area too.' In a society where poverty too often hides in plain sight, organisations like Caritas Salford serve as both conscience and catalyst — offering immediate relief, long-term solutions, and a reminder that compassion is not just a virtue, but a necessity. Patrick O'Dowd is the embodiment of that.
