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Bujang Valley, Bukit Choras an integral part of Southeast Asia's ancient history
The recent International Conference on the Early History of Southeast Asia brought together renowned scholars from Southeast Asian countries – Thailand, Indonesia, Cambodia, China, India and host Malaysia – to discuss maritime trade and the presence of Hindu-Buddhist influences in the region during the early historical period.
Organised by Universiti Sains Malaysia's Centre for Global Archaeological Research, the Institute of Malay Civilisation at Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, and the Department of National Heritage, the event also focused on positioning Kedah Tua as among the oldest known civilisations in Southeast Asia.
The conference provided a platform for the exchange of knowledge on early maritime trade, archaeological findings and excavations, and the religious and cultural influences that shaped this region.
Scholars affirmed the role of Kedah Tua (ancient Kedah) and Bujang Valley as one of the main focal points of maritime trade between West Asia – specifically India – and the west coast of the peninsula, from the tip of the Isthmus of Kra down to Bruas. Their presentations confirmed the influence of Hindu-Buddhist religion in Thailand, Cambodia, Indonesia, and Kedah Tua.
Kedah Tua was one of the main entrepôt centres in Peninsular Malaysia, connected to other ports in the Southeast Asian region. It had trading links with cultural and economic hubs in the north, such as the Thai coastal cities of Khao Sam Kaeo, Khamaukgi, Lang Suan and the Khiong Thom Complex.
In fact, the Orang Laut or sea nomads of Ko Lanta and the islands off southern Thailand in the Andaman Sea – whose ancestral home is believed to be Gunung Jerai – once traded with the Khiong Thom Complex, the southernmost part of the early Thai city-states nearest to Kedah Tua.
Trade routes during this period centred on the Isthmus of Kra, with a narrow overland crossing (50 km) that connected the Bay of Bengal and the South China Sea.
Kedah Tua, which existed from the 2nd to the 14th century AD, stretched along the west coast of the peninsula from the Isthmus of Kra to Bruas. Bujang Valley was its commercial and population hub, centred on the Sungai Muda Complex, with subsidiary centres at Sungai Bujang and Sungai Batu.
The existence of Kedah Tua is recorded in Indian, Arab, and Chinese sources, as well as local records. It was referred to as Kadaram in Tamil, Kataha in Sanskrit, Chieh-Cha in Chinese, and Kalah in Arabic.
Its location at the entrance of the Straits of Malacca – opening to the Andaman Sea and Bay of Bengal – favoured contact with Eastern and Southern India and other regional maritime ports. Its natural harbour and indigenous coastal and riverine settlements attracted traders who sailed with the monsoon winds.
By the time the first Indian traders arrived, indigenous coastal settlements already existed at estuaries and riverbanks. Local religious and cultural practices – largely animistic – blended easily with the Hindu-Buddhist beliefs brought by Indian traders.
Bujang Valley's status as a trade and commerce centre declined between the 15th and 18th centuries. Kedah had become a Muslim sultanate following the advent of Islam via Perlak and Pasai in the 13th century, which then spread across the Straits of Malacca into the peninsula.
Although archaeological excavations point to the presence of Hindu-Buddhist culture in Bujang Valley, other faiths were also practised – including those of Arab and Chinese traders, as well as indigenous animism.
Indian traders introduced Hinduism and Buddhism to the region, as evidenced by the widespread presence of candis and stupas. Among the most famous are Angkor Wat (12th century) in Cambodia and Borobudur (9th century) in Magelang, Java. Numerous terracotta statues from Bukit Choras, along with inscriptions, pottery, beads, jewellery and ceramics, confirm the region's Hindu-Buddhist heritage.
The culture was not purely Indian but a hybrid, blending with indigenous beliefs.
Seventeen well-preserved temple sites in Bujang Valley – including Bukit Choras, Ladang Sungai Batu, Bukit Batu Pahat, Kampung Pendiat, Pengkalan Bujang, and Permatang Pasir – located within the Sungai Batu, Pengkalan Bujang and Batu Pahat archaeological complexes, testify to the region's commercial trading settlements and Hindu-Buddhist influence.
The connectivity of Kedah Tua with other maritime states
1. Architectural structure of the candis
Candis across Southeast Asia share structural similarities, with local variations. The Bukit Choras structure resembles stupas in Ratnagiri and Udayagiri (India), and those from the Dvaravati period in central Thailand – square-based with niches housing Buddha images.
However, the Bukit Choras stupa is smaller and simpler than the multi-tiered stupas of Thailand. Similar square stupas are found at Yarang (Pattani) and Candi Blandongan (Batujaya, West Java). Cambodia has a variety of simple to complex stupas. One of the earliest is the Piprahwa stupa.
These architectural similarities across Bujang Valley, Thailand, Cambodia and Indonesia reflect a shared Hindu-Buddhist legacy and a link to Indian and Sri Lankan traditions.
2. The Buddha image
Hindu-Buddhist images and stupas built by Indian traders are found throughout the region. Sculptures and reliefs include standing and sitting Buddha figures.
Two standing Buddha types are commonly found:
a. Varada mudra: right hand open and lowered, left holding the robe – found in Central Thailand and Bujang Valley (e.g. bronze standing Buddha in Kampung Pendiat, 6th–7th century).
b. Dharmachakra mudra: both hands at chest level – also seen in Dvaravati-style images.
Sitting Buddha images include:
(i) Dharmachakra mudra – hands at chest level. (ii) Bhumisparsa mudra – right hand touching earth, left on lap. (iii) Varada mudra – right hand down, left holding alms bowl. (iv) Dhyana mudra – both hands in lap, palms up (e.g. Bukit Choras). (v) Abhaya mudra – left palm forward at shoulder, right hand down.
Sitting Buddhas at Borobudur show Dharmachakra and Dhyana mudras. In Laos, they often appear in Bhumisparsa and Abhaya mudras. Cambodian and Chinese Buddhas (e.g. Shanxi, Guangzhou) also reflect these forms.
These stylistic similarities show the spread of religious art and belief through maritime trade.
3. Inscriptions
Inscriptions provide further evidence linking Kedah Tua and Bujang Valley with other Southeast Asian centres. Buddhist mantras (Mahayana sect) dating from the 6th to 14th centuries were found in Bukit Choras, Sungai Mas and Sungai Batu.
Inscriptions were also found on stelae – upright stone slabs – like the Ram Khamhaeng Inscription (Thailand, 1292), Phimanakas stele (Cambodia), and the Buddhagupta stele discovered in Seberang Perai (Penang), which resembles those in southern Thailand. The Pallava script used is similar to that of King Purnavarman's inscriptions in Java.
Other notable inscriptions include the Kutai/Mulavarman Inscription (Indonesia), the Khmer Sambor Inscription (683 CE), and inscriptions in Pali, Sanskrit and Khmer.
The early history of Southeast Asia is a tapestry of cultural expression, shaped by maritime trade and unified by shared religious practices. Hindu-Buddhist beliefs predominated, evidenced by the archaeological remnants – stupas, images, inscriptions and traded goods such as beads, ceramics, pottery and jewellery.
Kedah Tua, Bujang Valley and Bukit Choras are an integral part of this archaeological matrix. They reflect a shared philosophical and metaphysical understanding of existence – expressed through religion, trade and cultural exchange – that binds the region together in both cosmic and physical dimensions.
Main image: Ghouse (left; in blue) at Bukit Choras in Yan on May 18, 2025.
