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Hindustan Times
23-05-2025
- Politics
- Hindustan Times
What came before the UN?: In Egypt, China, ancient bids to administer the world
We've been trying to work around borders more or less since we first invented them. Often, this wish came from a drive for power. Ancient kingdoms, over and over, imagined they would 'rule everything under the heavens'. A bid to prosper and endure drove such campaigns too, since prospering and enduring have always been difficult to do alone. Here are three of the earliest attempts at a unified world order. A first effort: Akkadian Empire, Mesopotamia (2300 BCE) This is the earliest known multinational empire. At its peak, it consisted of a range of city-states that stretched from parts of Iran in the east to the Levant (modern-day Syria and Israel) in the west, and from Anatolia in modern-day Turkey in the north to parts of the Arabian desert. Called the Akkadian Empire, it was set up by King Sargon (2334-2279 BCE), who ascended the throne in an unusual way. Unlike his predecessors, he did not claim to represent the gods. Instead, he projected himself as a self-made leader. In a sense, he had to. He was not born of 'royal' blood. In fact, it was said, in the contemporary lore about him, that Sargon was an orphan who was set adrift in a reed basket along the Euphrates, before being discovered and raised by a gardener. (Isn't it interesting how so many of our legends and myths echo and back and forth through time?) He was, at some point, appointed cup-bearer to the Mesopotamian king Ur-Zababa. He rose, over time, to the position of general in his army. Then he overthrew his king. Using anti-incumbency to his benefit, he spread word that he was as distanced from the lineage of kings as could be, and could do things differently as a result, and usher in a golden age. As kingdom after kingdom pledged fealty to what was now becoming the Mesopotamian Empire, he conducted military campaigns as shows of strength, and to annex the unwilling. Sargon's sons Rimush and Manishtushu held the vast kingdom together after his death. The empire grew to be so vast that it is believed to have birthed one of the earliest bureaucracies. Hundreds of surviving seals and tablets show how the administrators documented state affairs, preserved blueprints of major structures, drew maps of canals, and kept meticulous accounts of livestock, fish, barley, cloth, gems and beer. All-in-all, it lasted about a century. Most records attribute the fall to in-fighting between the Sumerian city-states, and the lack of a dominant central leader. Gains and loss: Ancient Egypt (2613-1425 BCE) The key to this majestic empire lay in a single word: maat. In Ancient Egyptian belief, this was a term for cosmic order and a state of harmony between gods and the world. It was the Egyptian king Sneferu (2613–2589 BCE) who first associated maat with politics. Governance, in this period, became linked to the welfare of the soul. Pharaohs, their ministers and bureaucrats prioritised the building of temples, offerings to gods, and the expansion and protection of the borders. That last bit soon took on a dominant role. Egypt began a phase of furious annexation, until the kingdom stretched from Nubia (parts of Egypt and Sudan along the Nile Valley) into the Sinai Peninsula, encompassing Syria and the Euphrates. These borders would fluctuate, under successive pharaohs. Yet, for all its grandeur, this land would eventually come to be ruled by a succession of foreign powers for over 2,500 years, starting with the Assyrians from Ancient Mesopotamia in the 7th century BCE, followed by the Persians, Greeks, Romans, Ottomans and the British. When Gamal Abdel Nasser took over as the second President of Egypt in 1954, he was the first Egyptian to rule Egypt since the pharaohs. (The first president of the modern republic was Mohamed Naguib, originally of Sudan.) All under heaven: China, 221 BCE-220 CE In China, an ambitious king united warring kingdoms in 221 BCE by promoting the Chinese ideal of tianxia, literally, 'all under heaven'. As Qin Shi Huang (259-210 BCE) crafted the first Chinese imperial dynasty, he had a little help from the long-gone-but-rather-immortal Confucius (who lived in the 5th and 6th centuries BCE). Closely linked to the idea of tianxia was an idea that philosopher had espoused, called Da Tong, or the Great Unity. This belief system envisioned a world government that ruled not by force but by attraction. This would be a government so selfless in its service to the people that the world would simply coalesce around it. Using this ideal of 'stability in unity' as a propaganda tool, the Qin launched massive military campaigns to expand into parts of Central Asia and Vietnam. The Qin dynasty was followed by the Han, which ruled for over 400 years, from 206 BCE to 220 CE. They continued the military expansion, eventually dividing the empire into inner and outer realms. Inner territories came under direct control of the Son of Heaven, the emperor. The outer realms were controlled via tributes and alliances. Bonus: The Perpetual Peace doctrine of Immanuel Kant (1795) In his essay Perpetual Peace, the Prussian philosopher Immanuel Kant proposed a radical idea: a federation of free, self-governing republics bound not by conquest but by a shared commitment to autonomy and peace. Kant was 71 at the time. Europe was living through the bloody horrors of the French Revolution (1789-99), and the wars that followed between Revolutionary France and the monarchies of Austria and Prussia. Against this violent backdrop, Kant imagined a world in which peace wasn't just a pause to war but a permanent condition that nations committed to uphold. The six 'preliminary articles' he laid out were a mix of prescience and idealism. In order for there to be peace, he said, diplomacy would need to be transparent; standing armies should be gradually abolished; national debt should not be raised in order to fund wars; states must not interfere in each other's internal affairs; acts of hostility that destroy trust must be banned; and peace treaties must be designed to end wars permanently, not merely defer them. Some of these ideas remain at the heart of international relations, and are echoed in the framework of the United Nations. What they run up against, of course, is a world underpinned by ancient fears and insecurities. As the philosopher Thomas Hobbes put it, more than a century before Kant: The natural state of man is war.
The Independent
16-03-2025
- General
- The Independent
Ancient stone tablets show government red tape goes back 4,000 years, say scientists
Red tape may feel like a modern-day frustration, but according to archaeologists, it's been a part of governance for millennia. Evidence from ancient Mesopotamia reveals that bureaucratic systems were in place as far back as 4,000 years ago. Over 200 administrative tablets and around 50 cylinder seal impressions of Akkadian administrators have been uncovered by archaeologists from the British Museum and Iraq's State Board of Antiquities and Heritage, shedding light on the early foundations of government bureaucracy. The texts reveal a complex bureaucracy that went into running the ancient civilisation. These were the state archives of the ancient Sumerian site of Girsu, in modern-day Tello, while the city was controlled by the Akkad dynasty from 2300 to 2150BC. While the texts may not be great masterpieces of Sumerian literature, like the Epic of Gilgamesh, the British Museum's curator for ancient Mesopotamia, director of the Girsu Project, Sébastien Rey told The Independent they are 'nonetheless incredibly important.' 'They record all aspects of Sumerian life, and above all they name real people, their names, their jobs,' he said. 'The new tablets and sealings provide tangible evidence of a Sumerian city and its citizens under Akkad rule which will last about a century and half before the fall of the empire.' Girsu, known as one of the world's oldest cities, was once revered as the sanctuary of the Sumerian heroic god Ningirsu. At its peak, it covered hundreds of hectares worth of land, but it was one of the independent Sumerian cities that were conquered around 2300BC by the Mesopotamian king Sargon. Sargon originally came from the city of Akkad, whose location remains unknown but is thought the be near modern Baghdad. The Akkadian empire lasted for 150 years, ending with a rebellion. These administrative tablets, containing cuneiform symbols, an ancient writing system, record the affairs of the state, including issues relating to land management and the movement of goods and service. There are accounts of various commodities, including deliveries and expenditures, birds, fish and domesticated animals, flour and barley. They also deal with goods such as bread and beer, ghee and cheese, wool and textiles. He said: 'The names and professions of the citizens of Girsu are recorded in lists. Sumerian cities were known for their complex bureaucracy.' 'Among the many examples for concrete imperial control is the use of the newly imposed standard system of measures, the so-called 'Akkad-gur' for flour and barley,' he continued, comparing it to the British Imperial Unit.' The tablets were found at the site of a large state archive building, which was made of mud-brick walls divided into rooms or offices. Mr Rey added: 'We also found a group of tablets containing architectural plans of buildings, field plans and maps of canals. These were drawn by surveying scribes of the administration and are among the earliest known in the world.' The finds will go to the Iraqi Museum in Baghdad. It's possible they could be loaned to the British Museum in the future once further research and study has been carried out on them.
Yahoo
15-03-2025
- Entertainment
- Yahoo
If you want good reason to subscribe to PS Plus, this free game is it
When you buy through links on our articles, Future and its syndication partners may earn a commission. Quick Summary The latest batch of games coming to PS Plus this month have been announced. PS Plus Extra and Premium members will be able to download Prince of Persia: The Lost Crown and UFC 5 for free from 18 March, along with a collection of other top titles. One of the best action games of the last year will soon be available to all PS Plus Extra and Premium members to download for free. Sony has announced the games to be added to the PS Plus game and classics catalogues this month, and they include the rip-roaring Ubisoft platformer, Prince of Persia: The Lost Crown. Available from 18 March, the game has scored 86 on Metacritic for the PS5 and PS5 Pro, and it'll be available for PS4 owners to enjoy too. It puts you in the sandals of a new hero, Sargon, who must undergo a perilous journey to rescue Price Ghassan from the turncoat General Anahita. This will result in plenty of combat to test you, as well as the cunning use of time powers in order to progress. Presented in 2.5D side-scrolling fashion, the first major Prince of Persia game in more than a decade surprised many with its format, gameplay and crisp cartoon-like graphic style. It's an excellent jaunt that's well worth a download – especially for free. Also coming to the main PS Plus game catalogue next Tuesday is UFC 5, the latest in EA's mixed martial arts series. It's a PS5 exclusive although there are a fair few games that'll be available for PS4 too. Captain Tsubasa: Rise of New Champions, Mobile Suit Gundam Battle Operation Code Fairy, Arcade Paradise, Bang-On Balls: Chronicles, You Suck at Parking, and Syberia – The World Before are each available for PS4 and PS5. PS VR2 owners with PS Plus Premium also get Arcade Paradise VR, so you can transport yourself to an 80s-style coin-op emporium of your own styling to play retro-inspired games. And if it's true retro games you're after, the PS Plus Premium members get a trio of old school Armored Core games to play on PS4 or PS5. That includes the first ever Armored Core, Armored Core: Project Phantasma, and Armored Core: Master of Arena. Sadly, as is usual, PS Plus Essential members won't get any of the new additions, although the three games added at the beginning of March – Dragon Age: The Veilguard, Sonic Colors: Ultimate and Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: The Cowabunga Collection – are all available to all subscribers no matter the tier.
The Guardian
15-03-2025
- General
- The Guardian
‘Spreadsheets of empire': red tape goes back 4,000 years, say scientists after Iraq finds
The red tape of government bureaucracy spans more than 4,000 years, according to new finds from the cradle of the world's civilisations, Mesopotamia. Hundreds of administrative tablets – the earliest physical evidence of the first empire in recorded history – have been discovered by archaeologists from the British Museum and Iraq. These texts detail the minutiae of government and reveal a complex bureaucracy – the red tape of an ancient civilisation. These were the state archives of the ancient Sumerian site of Girsu, modern-day Tello, while the city was under the control of the Akkad dynasty from 2300 to 2150BC. 'It's not unlike Whitehall,' said Sébastien Rey, the British Museum's curator for ancient Mesopotamia and director of the Girsu Project. 'These are the spreadsheets of empire, the very first material evidence of the very first empire in the world – the real evidence of the imperial control and how it actually worked.' Girsu, one of the world's oldest cities, was revered in the 3rd millennium BC as the sanctuary of the Sumerian heroic god Ningirsu. Covering hundreds of hectares at its peak, it was among independent Sumerian cities conquered around 2300BC by the Mesopotamian king Sargon. He originally came from the city of Akkad, whose location is still unknown but is thought to have been near modern Baghdad. Rey said: 'Sargon developed this new form of governance by conquering all the Sumerian cities of Mesopotamia, creating what most historians call the first empire in the world.' He added that, until these latest excavations, information on that empire was limited to fragmentary and bombastic royal inscriptions or much later copies of Akkadian inscriptions 'which are not completely reliable'. Of the new discovery, he said: 'It is extremely important because, for the first time, we have concrete evidence – with artefacts in situ.' He has been astonished by the detail in those records: 'They note absolutely everything down. If a sheep dies at the very edge of the empire, it will be noted. They are obsessed with bureaucracy.' The tablets, containing cuneiform symbols, an early writing system, record affairs of state, deliveries and expenditures, on everything from fish to domesticated animals, flour to barley, textiles to precious stones. Dana Goodburn-Brown, a British-American conservator, is cleaning the tablets so that they can be transcribed. The work is both painstaking and exciting, she said: 'People just think things come out of the ground and look like you see them in the museum, but they don't.' One tablet lists different commodities: '250 grams of gold / 500 grams of silver/ … fattened cows… / 30 litres of beer.' Even the names and professions of the citizens are recorded, Rey said: 'Women, men, children – we have names for everyone. 'Women held important offices within the state. So we have high priestesses, for example, although it was a society very much led by men. But the role of the woman was at least higher than many other societies, and it's undeniable based on the evidence that we have.' The jobs listed range from stone-cutters to the sweeper of the temple floor. Rey said: 'Being able to sweep the floor where the gods and the high priest were located was very important. The cities of ancient Mesopotamia in theory all belonged to the gods. The society worked for the temple state.' The tablets were found at the site of a large state archive building, made of mud-brick walls and divided into rooms or offices. Some of the tablets contain architectural plans of buildings, field plans and maps of canals. The finds were made by archaeologists at the Girsu Project, a collaboration between the British Museum and the Iraqi government's State Board of Antiquities and Heritage, funded by Meditor Trust, a charitable foundation. The site was originally excavated in the 19th and early 20th centuries and was targeted by looters after the two Gulf wars: 'Tablets of the Akkad period were either looted or carelessly removed from their archaeological setting and thus decontextualised. So it was very difficult to understand how the administration worked. 'The key thing now is that we were able to excavate them properly within their archaeological context. The new finds were preserved in situ, so in their original context, and we can say for sure that we have indeed the very first physical evidence of imperial control in the world. This is completely new.' The finds have been sent to the Iraq Museum in Baghdad for further study, ahead of a possible loan to the British Museum. The Akkadian empire lasted for only about 150 years, ending with a rebellion that secured the city's independence.
Express Tribune
15-03-2025
- Entertainment
- Express Tribune
PlayStation Plus March lineup adds UFC 5, Prince of Persia, and more
Listen to article PlayStation has announced its latest lineup of games coming to the PlayStation Plus Game Catalog in March, featuring a mix of action-packed adventures, sports simulations, and retro classics. Among the highlights are UFC 5, Prince of Persia: The Lost Crown, and Captain Tsubasa: Rise of New Champions. All games will be available for PlayStation Plus Extra and Premium members starting March 18. Top Titles in the March Game Catalogue UFC 5 (PS4, PS5) MMA enthusiasts can experience the high stakes and realistic combat of UFC 5, powered by the Frostbite engine. The game offers improved graphics, fluid gameplay, and enhanced damage systems that bring the intensity of the Octagon to life. Prince of Persia: The Lost Crown (PS4, PS5) This latest installment in the iconic series introduces a new hero, Sargon, in a Persia-inspired world plagued by a corrupting curse. Players can harness time-based abilities and combat mythological creatures in a stunning side-scrolling adventure. Captain Tsubasa: Rise of New Champions (PS4) Based on the beloved anime series, this arcade soccer game delivers over-the-top action with exhilarating shots, character customization, and multiple story modes that let players relive the anime's events or create a new hero. Mobile Suit Gundam Battle Operation Code Fairy (PS4, PS5) Set during the Universal Century 0079 timeline, this single-player action game follows a secret unit fighting in the One Year War. Players engage in intense mech battles while uncovering an emotional wartime story. Arcade Paradise (PS4, PS5) In this nostalgic arcade simulation, players take on the role of Ashley, a rebellious entrepreneur transforming a laundromat into a thriving arcade business. With over 35 playable games, players must balance arcade management with high-score chasing. Bang-On Balls: Chronicles (PS4, PS5) This chaotic 3D platformer takes players through historically themed open worlds filled with challenges, collectibles, and destructible environments. The game offers both solo and co-op multiplayer experiences. You Suck at Parking (PS4, PS5) This unconventional driving game challenges players to park in increasingly difficult courses. With over 270 levels and customization options, precision and speed are key to mastering the game. Syberia: The World Before (PS4, PS5) The latest entry in the beloved Syberia series follows two intertwining stories: that of Kate Walker, a modern-day adventurer, and Dana Roze, a pianist in 1930s Europe. This point-and-click adventure combines steampunk aesthetics with a deep narrative. PlayStation Plus Premium: VR and Classic Titles In addition to the Game Catalog titles, PlayStation Plus Premium members will receive access to several new games, including a VR experience and classic PlayStation titles from FromSoftware's Armored Core franchise. Arcade Paradise VR (PS VR2) This VR version of the popular arcade simulation brings players back to 1993, where they can manage their own arcade while experiencing 12 fully immersive VR cabinet games. Armored Core Trilogy (PS4, PS5) Fans of FromSoftware's Armored Core series can revisit three classic PlayStation titles: Armored Core (1997): Players take on the role of a mercenary piloting a customizable mech in a post-apocalyptic world. Armored Core: Project Phantasma (1997/1998): A deeper story unfolds as players infiltrate an underground complex while facing powerful new enemies. Armored Core: Master of Arena (1999): Players seek revenge against a formidable foe while competing in intense mech battles. Availability All new Game Catalog and Premium titles will be available to PlayStation Plus members starting March 18. With a mix of modern action games, classic mecha combat, and immersive VR experiences, the March lineup offers something for every type of player.
