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Beijing & Vatican: a short history of religion and Catholicism in China
Pope Leo XIV has asked for prayers for China's Catholics to be in communion with the Holy See, wading into a prickly foreign policy issue between Beijing and the Vatican.
On May 25, a couple of weeks into his papacy, the pontiff said: 'In the churches and shrines in China and throughout the world, prayers have been raised to God as a sign of the solicitude and affection for Chinese Catholics and their communion with the universal church.'
He was referring to the special feast day of May 24, which was initiated for China's Catholics in 2007 by Pope Benedict XVI.
Communist China severed diplomatic ties with the Vatican in 1951, two years after the establishment of the People's Republic. What has been China's relationship with the Catholic Church over the decades?
Catholicism in China
Christianity is said to have arrived in China with a monk named Aluoben in the seventh century, during the time of the Tang dynasty (618-907 CE). He was allowed to build a monastery; however, in 845 CE, activities of all foreign religions, including Christianity, were limited by an imperial edict.
An Italian Jesuit priest named Matteo Ricci (1552-1610) who travelled from Europe to Goa in 1578 and was ordained at Cochin (now Kochi) three years later, is credited with popularising the religion in China.
Ricci, who travelled to China from India, learnt Mandarin and the local culture to reach out to the local population. He wrote that in order to avoid suspicion, 'the Fathers (Jesuits) initially did not attempt to speak very clearly about our holy law… They rather tried to learn the language, literature, and etiquette of the Chinese, and to win their hearts and, by the example of their good lives…'
The Taiping Rebellion, a major uprising against the Qing dynasty that lasted for 14 years from 1850-64, was inspired in part by Christianity. Hong Xiuquan, the leader of the rebellion, believed that he was the brother of Jesus Christ, with the mission of establishing Taiping Tianguo, or the Heavenly Kingdom of Great Harmony.
Mao Zedong's communists saw religion as being incompatible with their ideology, and a distraction for the working masses.
The Nationalist government had maintained relations with the Holy See, but the People's Republic demanded total allegiance from Chinese Christian priests, and perceived their link with the Vatican as a threat of control by Western powers.
In what is seen as a fabricated controversy, the government expelled the Vatican representative in China for 'espionage' in 1951.
In 2018, China and the Vatican reached an agreement that allowed the Holy See to have the final say over the appointments of bishops proposed by Beijing. Many in the West saw the agreement as bowing down to Chinese government pressure.
In 2021, Pope Francis said in defence of the Church: 'China is not easy, but I am convinced that we should not give up dialogue.'
Limited recognition
During Mao's Cultural Revolution (1966-76), all elements deemed antithetical to a communist society were purged, including religious groups. It was only after the economic reforms of 1978 under Deng Xiaoping that they began to re-emerge.
Article 36 of the PRC's constitution guarantees religious freedom, but with restrictions. It says, 'No one shall use religion to engage in activities that disrupt public order, impair the health of citizens or interfere with the state's education system. Religious groups and religious affairs shall not be subject to control by foreign forces.'
Members of the Communist Party cannot have religious affiliations.
Five religions are officially recognised: Catholicism, Protestantism, Islam, Buddhism, and Taoism. However, their administration, such as the appointment of bishops, is under state control. The Vatican has historically opposed this, saying only the Pope can make these decisions.
An estimate by Pew Research put the number of Catholics in China at around 10 million in 2020. This included members of underground churches run by local priests. Unlike other religious groups, the population of Catholics in China is estimated to be shrinking.
Tension over Taiwan
An aspect of China-Vatican tensions is the issue of Taiwan, which Beijing claims as a part of China.
After the victory of the communists in China's Civil War, the leaders of the Nationalist Party (Kuomintang) fled to Taiwan, where they established their government and sought support from Western governments as the 'Republic of China'.
Subsequently, under its 'One China' policy, Beijing required any country with diplomatic ties with the PRC to not recognise Taiwan. While many governments backed Taiwan during the Cold War era, China's economic rise and the changing geopolitical situation gradually saw them shift their allegiance.
Currently, only 12 governments, mostly small island nations, recognise Taiwan. The Holy See is one of these governments.
Religion under Xi
The Chinese state under President Xi Jinping has moved away from an earlier view of religion as something that could guide people towards morality and balance amid increasing commercialisation.
Since Xi came to power in 2013, the state and Communist Party have stressed on the 'Sinicisation' of religions, aimed at maintaining and promoting their 'Chinese characteristics'. Critics say Sinicisation is, in fact, an effort to homogenise disparate cultures to match the practices of the majority ethnic Han population.
Crackdowns on religious groups have also increased. The most well-known example is that of Uighur Muslims in the western Xinjiang province, many of whom have been interned in 're-education camps'. China denies allegations of Uighurs being forced into slave labour.
Rishika Singh is a Senior sub-editor at the Explained Desk of The Indian Express. She enjoys writing on issues related to international relations, and in particular, likes to follow analyses of news from China. Additionally, she writes on developments related to politics and culture in India.
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