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India's Linguistic Landscape: From constitutional safeguards to endangered languages
UPSC Issue at a Glance is an initiative by UPSC Essentials aimed at streamlining your preparation for the prelims and mains examinations by focusing on current issues making headlines. Every Thursday, cover a new topic in a lucid way. This week we take you through India's Linguistic Landscape. Let's get started. If you missed the previous UPSC Issue at a Glance | From Caste to its Census: What you must know for UPSC Exam from the Indian Express, read it here. India's multilingual landscape is the epitome of the country's diversity and heritage, having evolved into its present form after millennia of migrations and cultural mixing. It has been, in many ways, our greatest source of strength and yet, at times, the cause behind some bitter political skirmishes. In this context, let us look at India's linguistic landscape through constitutional mandate, classical languages and the challenge of extinction faced by various languages. (Relevance: UPSC Syllabus-General Studies-I, II: Indian culture will cover the salient aspects of Art Forms, literature and Architecture from ancient to modern times. Indian Constitution, Government policies and intervention. UPSC has previously asked questions on language-related provisions of the Constitution of India, classical languages and other associated aspects. Thus, it becomes essential to cover the topic of India's languages comprehensively, not only for the prelims but also for the mains.) Kos-kos par badle paani, chaar kos par baani (The water changes every mile, the speech every fourth.) This age-old saying beautifully captures the essence of India's unmatched linguistic richness, the linguistic diversity that has long been a defining strength of Indian democracy. Notably, even in the face of a partition based on religious grounds, the long discussions and deliberations for safeguarding the pluralistic features of Indian society were seen in the Constituent Assembly debates. In contrast to the Western model of a nation-state, where the dominant language becomes the norm, federal principles were established in the Constitution of India to encourage and protect the multilingual-multicultural ethos. India served as a model for other linguistically diverse states, encouraging them to embrace cultural-linguistic diversity. In this context, let's understand various provisions of the Constitution of India related to languages. 📍Eighth Schedule The Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India lists the languages officially recognised by the Government of India. As of May 2025, 22 languages have been classified under the Eighth Schedule. Initially, however, the Schedule included 14 languages: Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Malayalam, Marathi, Oriya (renamed to Odia in 2011), Punjabi, Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu, and Urdu. These 14 languages were selected from among the hundreds identified by George A Grierson in his Linguistic Survey of India which catalogued over 700 linguistic varieties across the subcontinent as early as 1927. Over time, the Schedule expanded beyond the original 14 languages to include Bodo, Dogri, Konkani, Maithili, Manipuri, Nepali, Santhali, and Sindhi, bringing the total to 22. Sindhi was added through the 21st Amendment Act of 1967; Konkani, Manipuri, and Nepali were added by the 71st Amendment Act of 1992; and Bodo, Dogri, Maithili, and Santhali were included through the 92nd Amendment Act of 2003. Notably, the Constituent Assembly did not lay down any formal criteria for the inclusion of languages in the Eighth Schedule. However, from time to time, efforts have been made by various committees, such as the Ashok Pahwa Committee (1996) and the Sitakant Mohapatra Committee (2003), to define clearer criteria for inclusion. Despite these efforts, no official standard has been adopted for selecting languages for the eight schedules. The Ministry of Home Affairs confirms this position: 'As the evolution of dialects and languages is dynamic, influenced by socio-eco-political developments, it is difficult to fix any criterion for languages, whether to distinguish them from dialects or for inclusion in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India.' 📍Part XVII – Official Language Part XVII of the constitution of India deals with the official languages in Articles 343 to 351. Clause 1 of Article 343 ('Official language of the Union') says 'The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script', and 'The form of numerals to be used for the official purposes of the Union shall be the international form of Indian numerals.' Article 343(2) says that 'for a period of fifteen years from the commencement of this Constitution, the English language shall continue to be used for all the official purposes of the Union for which it was being used immediately before such commencement'. The Constitution of India commenced, or came into force, on January 26, 1950. Under Article 343(3), 'Parliament may by law provide for the use, after the said period of fifteen years, of— (a) the English language, or (b) the Devanagari form of numerals, for such purposes as may be specified in the law.' On January 26, 1965, Section 3 of the Official Languages Act, 1963 came into effect, which provided for the 'continuation of English Language for official purposes of the Union and for use in Parliament' even after the expiration of the 15-year period after the commencement of the Constitution. Article 344 (1) provides for the constitution of a Commission by the President on expiration of five years from the commencement of the Constitution and thereafter at the expiration of ten years from such commencement, which shall consist of a Chairman and such other members representing the different languages specified in the Eighth Schedule. Article 345 talks about the Official Language of a State, it says, 'Subject to the provisions of articles 346 and 347, the Legislature of a State may by law adopt any one or more of the languages in use in the State or Hindi as the language or languages to be used for all or any of the official purposes of that State: Provided that, until the Legislature of the State otherwise provides by law, the English language shall continue to be used for those official purposes within the State for which it was being used immediately before the commencement of this Constitution.' 📍Language to be Used in Representations for Redress of Grievances According to Article 350, 'Every person shall be entitled to submit a representation for the redress of any grievance to any officer or authority of the Union or a State in any of the languages used in the Union or in the State, as the case may be. 📍Facilities for Instruction in Mother Tongue at Primary Stage Article 350A provides special directive for the states and local authority within the State to provide adequate facilities for instruction in the mother-tongue at the primary stage of education to children belonging to linguistic minority groups; and the President may issue such directions to any State as he considers necessary or proper for securing the provision of such facilities. 📍Special Officer for linguistic minorities The Constitution under Article 350B provides that 'There shall be a Special Officer for linguistic minorities to be appointed by the President.' Notably, it shall be the duty of the Special Officer to investigate all matters relating to the safeguards provided for linguistic minorities under this Constitution and report to the President upon those matters at such intervals as the President may direct, and the President shall cause all such reports to be laid before each House of Parliament, and sent to the Governments of the States concerned. 📍Directive for development of the Hindi language Article 351 says 'It shall be the duty of the Union to promote the spread of the Hindi language, to develop it so that it may serve as a medium of expression for all the elements of the composite culture of India'. However, the provision says, this must be done 'without interfering with its genius, the forms, style and expressions used in Hindustani and in the other languages of India specified in the Eighth Schedule'. The classical languages serve as a custodian of India's heritage, embodying the essence of a community's historical and cultural milestone.- Ashwini Vaishnaw (Union Information & Broadcasting Minister) Beyond official languages there is also a category of classical languages. These languages are considered the custodians of India's ancient and profound cultural heritage. They preserve the rich history, literature, and traditions of their respective communities. The government grants this status to languages to honour and safeguard the linguistic milestones of India's diverse cultural landscape. Notably, in October 2004, the Centre decided to create a new category of languages as 'classical languages'. On October 12 in the same year, Tamil became the first Indian language to receive 'classical' status due to its high antiquity and rich literary tradition. In November 2004, a Linguistic Experts Committee (LEC) was constituted by the Ministry of Culture under the Sahitya Akademi to examine the eligibility of the languages proposed to be accorded classical language status. Later, Tamil (2004), Sanskrit (2005), Kannada (2008), Telugu (2008), Malayalam (2013), and Odia (2014) were given the classical languages status. On July 25, 2024, the LEC unanimously revised the criteria for classical status and recommended the following languages to be considered as classical languages: Marathi, Pali, Prakrit, Assamese, and Bengali. In October last year, 'Classical Language' status was granted to recommended languages, and it brought the total number of officially designated classical languages to 11. Notably, among all the classical languages, Prakrit and Pali are the two classical languages that are not mentioned in the eighth schedule of the Indian Constitution. 📍Marathi: Modern Marathi descends from Maharashtri Prakrit, a Prakrit dialect used in western India which was the official language of the Satvahanas. Some Marathi scholars have claimed that this was the first among Prakrit languages, but this claim is contested. The oldest evidence of Maharashtri Prakrit can be found in a stone inscription in Pune district, dated to the 1st century BCE. The earliest evidence of the more modern Marathi can be traced to a copper-plate inscription found in Satara, dated to 739 CE. 📍Bengali & Assamese: Both these languages can find their origin in Magadhi Prakrit, a form of Prakrit popular in East India, and the official language of the Magadha court. The exact date in which they emerged is contested, with scholars putting forward dates of origin ranging from the 6th to the 12th centuries. They took on a form which may be recognisable today well into the second millennium CE. 📍Prakrit: There is no single Prakrit language. Rather, the term refers to a group of closely-related Indo-Aryan languages, whose defining feature was that they were the language of the masses as opposed to Sanskrit, which was restricted to the elites and high literature. Historian A L Basham wrote in The Wonder that was India (1954): 'By the time of the Buddha the masses were speaking languages which were much simpler than Sanskrit. These were the Prakrits, of which several dialects have been attested.' These vernaculars were thus also the language of popular heterodox religions that emerged in the first millennium BCE. 📍Pali: Pali has traditionally been identified with Magadhi Prakrit, with the word 'pali' meaning 'lines or series', a reference to Pali being the language of the series of Buddhist texts. Some modern scholars, however, believe Pali to be a mix of several Prakrit languages (including more western dialects), which were combined and partially Sanskritised. Pali is also known as the language of the Theravada Buddhist canon. The Pali Canon falls into three general categories or pitaka (basket). Together, it is thus known as Tipitaka ('three baskets'). The classical language status holds great importance for the preservation of India's linguistic and cultural heritage. The status of 'Classical language' for languages not only elevates their stature but also facilitates efforts toward the promotion, preservation, and further research of these languages, ensuring their continued relevance in the modern world. Classical Language status can also aid a language in addressing contemporary challenges like digitalisation and globalisation. It is also expected to create employment opportunities in the fields of academics and research. The tasks of preservation, documentation, and digitisation of ancient texts of these languages will likely generate jobs in archiving, translation, publishing, and digital media. The world is facing the danger of losing its languages, several of which are listed as endangered, and the loss of languages equates to loss of culture. — Dr K Sreenivasarao (Secretary of the Sahitya Akademi) According to experts, nearly 40 per cent of the world's 7,000 languages, including dialects spoken by indigenous people groups, have already disappeared, and several others are on the verge of getting extinct. The official website of UNESCO informs us: 'A language is in danger when its speakers cease to use it, use it in an increasingly reduced number of communicative domains, and cease to pass it on from one generation to the next. That is, there are no new speakers, adults or children.' UNESCO has categorised languages on the basis of endangerment as (i) Vulnerable (ii) Definitely Endangered (iii) Severely Endangered (iv) Critically Endangered. India writes in many languages and speaks in many more voices, but not all languages are listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution or given the tag of classical languages; often, these languages face the challenge of extinction and become endangered languages. Literary critic and activist Ganesh Narayan Devy, in an interview with Adrija Roychowdhury of The Indian Express in 2020, said – 'According to UNESCO, any language that is spoken by less than 10,000 people is potentially endangered. In India, after the 1971 census, the government decided that any language spoken by less than 10,000 people need not be included in the official list of languages. In India, therefore, all the languages that are spoken by less than 10,000 people are treated by the state as not worthy of mention and treated by the UNESCO as potentially endangered. As per my survey, there are close to 780 languages in India, out of which about 600 are potentially endangered. The census of 1991 and 2001 show not more than 122 languages. So, most others have to be called potentially endangered. Examples of such languages would be Wadari, Kolhati, Golla, Gisari. These are languages of nomadic people in Maharashtra, Karnataka and Telangana. Then there several tribal languages as well, such as Pauri, Korku, Haldi, Mavchi. In Assam, there is Moran, Tangsa, Aiton. There seems to be about 250 languages that disappeared in the last 60 years. There used to be languages called Adhuni, Dichi, Ghallu, Helgo, Katagi. The Bo language in Andaman disappeared in 2010 and the Majhi language in Sikkim disappeared in 2015. But we need to remember that it is impossible to show a language dying in the last moment of its life. A language is not a single life system. It is a very large symbolic system. When the symbols collapse they do not do so in a single moment. The collapse is sprayed over a large time.' Do you Know? Each language's extinction causes a permanent loss of distinctive ecological, historical, and cultural knowledge. Every language is a unique expression of the human experience of the world. Additionally, the Constitution of India has included the clause to protect minority languages as a fundamental right. Article 29 states, 'Any section of the citizens residing in the territory of India or any part thereof having a distinct language, script or culture of its own shall have the right to conserve the same.' In this context, recognising the significance of language preservation, various initiatives have been taken at both the national and global levels. 📍Scheme for Protection and Preservation of Endangered Languages (SPPEL) The Government of India is running the Scheme for Protection and Preservation of Endangered Languages (SPPEL). It was instituted by the Ministry of Education (Government of India) in 2013. The objective of the scheme is to document and archive the country's languages that have become endangered or are likely to be endangered in the near future. The scheme is monitored by the Central Institute of Indian Languages (CIIL) located in Mysuru, Karnataka. The CIIL has collaborated with various universities and institutes across India for this mission. Without adequate documentation, a language that is extinct can never be revived. -UNESCO The languages which are spoken by fewer than 10,000 speakers or languages which have not been linguistically studied earlier are chiefly considered to be documented in this scheme. Presently, 117 languages have been listed for the documentation. 📍Initiatives of the University Grants Commission (UGC) The University Grants Commission (UGC) has also initiated two schemes for the protection of endangered languages, namely 'Funding Support to the State Universities for Study and Research in Indigenous and Endangered Languages in India' and 'Establishment of Centres for Endangered Languages in Central Universities'. 📍International Decade of Indigenous Languages (2022-2032) UNESCO has declared the years between 2022 and 2032 as the International Decade of Indigenous Languages for their protection and propagation. Do you Know? 📍UNESCO World Atlas of Languages The UNESCO World Atlas of Languages is a dynamic and interactive online tool, constantly updated by users, which documents different aspects and features of language status, vitality, endangerment and sustainability. It is a detailed record of languages. It is a unique resource for language preservation, monitoring, promotion and knowledge sharing on language-related issues, as well as an interactive tool for language teaching and learning. Prelims (1) The Constitution (71st Amendment) Act, 1992 amends the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution to include which of the following languages? (UPSC 2024) 1. Konkani 2. Manipuri 3. Nepali 4. Maithili Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1, 2 and 4 (c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4 (2) Consider the following languages: (UPSC CSE 2014) 1. Gujarati 2. Kannada 3. Telugu Which of the above has/have been declared as 'Classical Language/Languages' by the Government? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 (3) Which one of the following was given classical language status recently? (UPSC CSE 2015) (a) Odia (b) Konkani (c) Bhojpuri (d) Assamese (4) Consider the following languages: 1. Manipuri 2. Bodo 3. Kashmiri What is the correct chronological order of these languages as they were included in the eighth schedule of the Constitution of India? (a) 3—2—1 (b) 1—2—3 (c) 2—1—3 (d) 3—1—2 (5) The Ashok Pahwa Committee (1996) and Sitakant Mohapatra Committee (2003) were associated with: (a) Reforms in the Lok Sabha (b) Caste Census (c) Eighth Schedule (d) Delimitation Mains 1. What are the criteria for a language's designation as a 'classical language'? Discuss the significance of India's recent designation of five languages as classical languages. 2. 'The inclusion of languages in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution has led to both empowerment and marginalisation.' Discuss the constitutional provisions related to language recognition and analyse their impact on linguistic diversity in India. (Sources: India has chosen diversity when it comes to language, Knowledge Nugget | Demand for inclusion of Kokborok and Bhojpuri in Eighth Schedule, Knowledge Nugget: Classical languages, The languages India speaks, Government grants 'Classical Language' status, Which are India's 5 new 'classical languages', Prakrit & Pali (IE), The language used in courts (IE), 'There are 600 potentially endangered languages in India..' ) Subscribe to our UPSC newsletter. Stay updated with the latest UPSC articles by joining our Telegram channel – Indian Express UPSC Hub, and follow us on Instagram and X. 🚨 Click Here to read the UPSC Essentials magazine for May 2025. Share your views and suggestions in the comment box or at Roshni Yadav is a Deputy Copy Editor with The Indian Express. She is an alumna of the University of Delhi and Jawaharlal Nehru University, where she pursued her graduation and post-graduation in Political Science. She has over five years of work experience in ed-tech and media. At The Indian Express, she writes for the UPSC section. Her interests lie in national and international affairs, governance, economy, and social issues. You can contact her via email: ... Read More
Indian Express
09-05-2025
- Business
- Indian Express
UPSC Prelims 2025 Special: Revision Checklist for important Environment topics that aspirants must review for their exams
Are You Prelims Ready? The UPSC Civil Services Preliminary Examination 2025 is scheduled for May 25. With environmental issues increasingly shaping global policies and national priorities, a solid grasp of Environmental topics has become indispensable for aspirants preparing for the UPSC Prelims 2025. Here's a must-check list of key environment topics to revisit in your notes or compilations. Don't miss them during your final revision. — The International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA), launched by Prime Minister Narendra Modi in 2023 for the global conservation of seven big cats, formally became a full-fledged treaty-based intergovernmental organization. — The framework agreement entering into force marks the official start of the IBCA's operations, activities, and programmes as mandated. It can now establish its governing bodies, secretariat, and administrative structures. 27 countries including India have consented to join IBCA. — The IBCA is an initiative launched by Prime Minister Narendra Modi in April 2023 in Mysuru commemorating the 50th anniversary of Project Tiger. The objective of the IBCA is to ensure cooperation for the conservation of seven big cats: lion, tiger, leopard, cheetah, snow leopard, jaguar, and puma, and enhance knowledge exchange and threats associated with them. To read more: Knowledge Nugget: Importance of the International Big Cat Alliance for UPSC Exam, Knowledge Nugget | India and International Big Cat Alliance: All you need to know for UPSC Exam — Tiger habitats are critical for preserving biodiversity, sequestering carbon, and supplying resources to nearly 100 million people. Tiger protection is also vital to the Global Wildlife Program (GWP), which works with eight tiger range countries on issues such as preventing the illegal trade in tiger parts, promoting human-tiger coexistence, and restoring and connecting tiger ecosystems. — The GWP, supported by the Global Environment Facility and led by the World Bank, was pleased to sponsor the Sustainable Finance for Tiger Landscapes Conference in Bhutan. — The Sustainable Finance for Tiger Landscapes Conference brought together 200 participants from tiger range nations, business and public sector funders, development partners, and conservation non-governmental organisations (NGOs) to debate creative ways to finance tiger landscape conservation sustainably. (Source: World Bank) — The Man and the Biosphere (MAB) programme is UNESCO's flagship initiative for biodiversity conservation and sustainable development, focussing on improving people's relationships with their ecosystems. — The Man and the Biosphere (MAB) programme is an intergovernmental scientific initiative that seeks to build a scientific foundation for improving the relationship between people and their ecosystems. — The World Network of Biosphere Reserves is a dynamic and participatory network of exceptional places maintained by UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme. — This 2024 edition of The State of the World's Mangroves emphasises the significant progress made on numerous fronts to protect these ecosystems. — Mangroves are widespread in tropical regions such as Southeast Asia, northern Australia, Equatorial Africa, and the low-latitude Americas. — They play an important role in erosion prevention by absorbing wave movements. They also serve as key biodiversity hotspots. — Mangroves and other tidal plants need oxygen at their roots to survive. They collect it when the tide is low and the water drains away. When plants become wet due to global warming, they begin to die. — Pichavaram mangrove forest is one of India's largest mangrove ecosystems, lying between the significant estuaries of the Vellar and Coleroon rivers. The site includes littoral and swamp forest habitats. — The Global Mangrove partnership (GMA) is the leading partnership working to save and restore the world's mangroves. Its 100+ member organisations are spread across 30 countries and active in many more. (Source: — Rat-hole mining, a method of extracting coal from narrow, horizontal seams, is common in Meghalaya. The term 'rat hole' refers to narrow pits dug into the ground, usually only large enough for one person to descend and extract coal. — After digging the pits, miners use ropes or bamboo ladders to descend to the coal seams. The coal is then physically removed with rudimentary instruments like pickaxes, shovels, and baskets. — Rat hole mining offers severe safety and environmental risks. Mines are often unregulated, with no safety measures such as sufficient ventilation, structural support, or worker protective equipment. Furthermore, the mining process can result in land degradation, deforestation, and water contamination. — The ISFR is produced biennially and entails mapping the country's forest cover with satellite data. — The ISFR uses data derived from wall-to-wall mapping of India's forest cover using remote sensing techniques to plan and formulate policy in the forest management, forestry, and agroforestry sectors. — India's green cover has surpassed the 25% mark, with forest (21.76%) and tree (3.41%) covering 8,27,357 square kilometres (25.17%) of the country. Of this, 4,10,175 square kilometres are designated as thick forests. — The net forest cover increased by 156.41 sq km between 2021 and 2023, bringing the geographical area under forest cover to 21.76 percent, a mere 0.05 percent increase from the 2021 assessment. With the increased net forest area, the total area under forest cover is currently 7,15,342.61 square kilometres. — The tree cover has increased the most dramatically. It grew from 2.91% in 2021 to 3.41% in 2023, resulting in an expansion of 1,285.4 square kilometres. The overall green cover has expanded by 1,445.81 square kilometres since 2021, accounting for 25.17 percent of the geographical area. To read more: Knowledge nugget of the day: India State of Forest Report 2023 — According to a new study, plant cover on the Antarctic Peninsula, a long, mountainous extension of Antarctica that extends north towards South America, has increased by more than tenfold in recent decades as temperatures have risen. — A 2023 study published in the journal Nature Climate Change discovered that the continent is warming twice as rapidly as the world average, at a pace of 0.22 to 0.32 degrees Celsius per decade. — The Antarctic Peninsula is warming five times faster than the global average, making the situation worse than elsewhere in Antarctica. The average temperature on the Antarctic Peninsula has increased by nearly 3 degrees Celsius since 1950. — The government-launched Mission Mausam aspires not just to improve weather forecasting in the country, but also to manage certain weather events, such as rainfall, hail, fog, and, subsequently, lightning strikes. — A cloud chamber resembles a closed cylindrical or tubular drum into which water vapour, aerosols, and other materials are pumped. A cloud can form inside this chamber when the humidity and temperature are just right. — The objective of establishing a convective cloud chamber is to gain a better understanding of cloud physics under conditions commonly affecting Indian weather systems. — Cloud physics is the study of cloud behaviour under normal and extreme conditions; intra-particle interactions within a cloud; the formation of rain droplets and ice particles; the influence of moisture added into the atmosphere by cyclones or low pressure systems; and interactions between different cloud layers, among other things. — It is any ground that has been frozen—32°F (0°C) or colder—for at least two years. These continuously frozen fields are especially abundant in mountainous places and at higher latitudes, particularly around the North and South Poles. — Permafrost covers a wide area of the Earth. Permafrost covers over 25% of the Northern Hemisphere's geographical area. Although the earth is frozen, permafrost zones do not always have snow. — Permafrost is composed of soil, rocks, and sand kept together by ice. The soil and ice in permafrost remain frozen all year. — Permafrost soils contain high quantities of organic carbon—a material remaining from dead plants that couldn't break down, or rot away, due to the cold. Lower permafrost layers contain soils made mostly of minerals. — Methane, a strong greenhouse gas, traps heat 80 times more effectively than carbon dioxide during a 20-year period. — Wetlands emit methane as soil bacteria break down carbon-rich plant matter, a process accelerated by rising temperatures and increased wetland area due to floods. — From 2020 to 2022, methane concentrations in the atmosphere reached their highest levels since 1980. According to studies, tropical regions are mostly responsible for the increase, with the Congo, Southeast Asia, the Amazon, and southern Brazil contributing significantly. — It is the ability of a living creature to generate and radiate light. This phenomenon is unusual in terrestrial ecosystems but prevalent in marine environments. — Many marine animals, including bacteria, algae, jellyfish, worms, crabs, sea stars, fish, and sharks, can create their own light. Deep-living and planktonic creatures exhibit higher luminescence than shallow species. Furthermore, the appearance of bioluminescent light varies depending on the environment and creature in which it is present. — According to NOAA, bioluminescence is the product of an enzyme reaction. An enzyme accelerates a chemical reaction by assisting a substrate in reacting. The enzyme is reused in the process rather than being converted into another molecule. To read more: Knowledge nugget of the day: Bioluminescence — It involves removing mineral deposits and metals from the ocean's seabed. — There are three types of such mining: taking deposit-rich polymetallic nodules off the ocean floor, mining massive seafloor sulphide deposits and stripping cobalt crusts from rock. — These nodules, deposits and crusts contain materials, such as nickel, rare earths, cobalt and more, that are needed for batteries and other materials used in tapping renewable energy and also for everyday technology like cellphones and computers. — South America is witnessing its worst forest fire season in nearly two decades, breaking a previous record for the number of blazes seen in a year. — Brazil, the continent's largest country, has been affected the worst, accounting for 60% of the region's current fires. — Three of the world's six largest ecosystems—the Amazon, the Cerrado (the world's most biodiverse savanna), and the Pantanal wetlands—have been badly impacted. — Excess fluoride increases the risks of disease conditions like skeletal fluorosis, accelerates the rate of dental decay and can cause other human health hazards, especially among children. — Even though fluoride is among the many minerals found naturally in groundwater, the nationally permissible limit is 1.50 milligrams/litre. Contamination over 1.50mg/litre is deemed unfit for drinking purposes. — Fluoride is discharged and mixed with groundwater as a result of the leaching and dissolving of fluoride-bearing minerals in the host water aquifers. — The average fluoride concentration in groundwater was greater in dry, western Indian areas. Rajasthan topped the charts, with pre-monsoon concentrations of 1.41mg/litre and post-monsoon concentrations of 1.44mg/litre, both of which were near to India's maximum allowable limit. — The soil health card informs farmers about the nutritional state of their soil and recommends the right nutrient dosage to improve its health and fertility. — The adoption of a soil health card has helped farmers significantly cut production costs while increasing yield. The soil health card depicts the soil's macronutrient and micronutrient levels. — Macronutrients include nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus, whereas micronutrients include boron (B), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), and zinc. The soil's physical properties include organic carbon (OC) and electrical conductivity (EC). — The biomaterial, known as a cyanobacterial engineered living material (C-ELM), contains living cyanobacteria within translucent panels that can be put on the inner walls of buildings. As microorganisms grow through photosynthesis, they absorb CO2 from the atmosphere. — A kilogramme of C-ELM can collect up to 350g of CO2, whereas the same amount of ordinary concrete would emit around 500g. A wall covered with 150 square metres of solar panels could trap approximately one tonne of CO2. — A groyne is a stiff hydraulic structure formed from an ocean coastline (in coastal engineering) or a river bank that disrupts water flow and restricts sediment migration. — Groyne promotes beach widening, which helps to preserve an appealing beach environment that is valuable for recreation and tourism. — It also holds silt, resulting in beach broadening, reduces erosion, and more wave energy dissipation. It provides a strong structure for the long-term stabilisation of coasts exploited for social activities. (Source: — The treaty aims to reduce pollution while also conserving and promoting the sustainable use of biodiversity and other marine resources in ocean seas. — Because the high seas are outside of any country's national jurisdiction, the treaty is also known as the Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdictions Agreement (BBNJ). It is properly known as the Agreement on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine Biological Diversity in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction. — The treaty only applies to oceans that are not under the jurisdiction of any country. National authorities typically extend up to 200 nautical miles (370 kilometres) from the coastline, forming exclusive economic zones, or EEZs. — The treaty also makes it mandatory to carry out a prior environmental impact assessment (EIA) for any activity that is potentially polluting or damaging to marine ecosystems, or to conservation efforts. — The High Seas Treaty seeks to achieve three substantive objectives: (i) Conservation and protection of marine ecology; (ii) Fair and equitable sharing of benefits from marine genetic resources; and (iii) Establishment of the practice of mandatory environmental impact assessments for any activity that is potentially polluting or damaging to the marine ecosystem. a. Rhino — The International Rhino Foundation (IRF) released its annual State of the Rhino report on World Rhino Day, 22nd September, to highlight the risks to and promote awareness for the five rhino species. — Rhino poaching in Africa increased by 4% between 2022 and 2023. — White rhino populations in South Africa are increasing despite poaching. — The greater one-horned rhino can be found in northern India and southern Nepal, in riverine (floodplain) grasslands and associated woods. — Kaziranga National Park, a World Heritage Site, is famed for thereat Indian one-horned rhinoceros. The topography of Kaziranga includes sheer forest, thick elephant grass, rough reeds, marshes, and tiny lakes. It was declared a national park in 1974. IUCN Status: Vulnerable (One-horned Rhino) IUCN Status: Critically Endangered (Sumatran Rhino) (Source: b. Great Indian Bustard (GIB) — The Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA) approved Rs 56 crore funding for the next phase of the conservation program of the Great Indian Bustard (GIB) and the Lesser Florican for the 2024-2029 period. — The Bustard and Lesser Florican are both critically endangered species. Only 140 Bustards and less than 1,000 Lesser Floricans survive. — The Great Indian Bustard is a large bird found only in India. It is known to be a key indicator species of the grassland habitat, which means its survival also signals the health of grassland habitats. Habitat: mainly Rajasthan and Gujarat c. Camel — The United Nations has named 2024 the International Year of Camelids (IYC 2024). The Year will highlight how camelids are critical to the livelihoods of millions of households in harsh situations in over 90 countries, notably Indigenous Peoples and local communities. — Camelids play a vital role in furthering the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) for hunger relief, extreme poverty elimination, women's empowerment, and the sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems. — The Indian camel's IUCN status is Endangered. d. Indian Flapshell Turtle — The Indian Flapshell Turtle is a small softshell turtle with a carapace length of up to 350 mm. Nesting often begins in late summer and continues through the monsoon season, which lasts from July to November. — These species live in a wide range of aquatic habitats, including rivers and streams, reservoirs, marshes, ponds, lakes, and even salt marshes, rice fields, gutters, and canals in urban areas — It is ubiquitous in brackish water lagoons on India's east coast and is frequently seen in irrigation canals and tanks, as well as stagnant paddy fields. Distribution: India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Nepal and Pakistan. e. Naegleria fowleri — Primary amebic meningoencephalitis (PAM) is a rare brain infection that is caused by Naegleria fowleri. It is a free-living amoeba or a single-celled living organism. — Naegleria fowleri lives in warm fresh water and soil all over the planet. It infects people by entering the body through the nose. — Naegleria fowleri enters the body through the nose, generally while people are swimming. It then travels to the brain, destroying brain tissue and inducing edoema. Notably, humans cannot become infected with Naegleria fowleri by ingesting water contaminated with the amoeba. f. Moulmein Rosewood — The Moulmein Rose Wood (Milliettia ovalifolia) tree's stunning pink and purple blossoms are best seen in the spring. — The Moulmein Rosewood, a small to medium-sized tree native to Indo-China and the Malayan regions, is plentiful in the forests of Dehradun and the Shivalik hills. — It is a deciduous tree that is commonly planted along avenues for ornamental purposes and is ideal for parks. However, according to the 'Tree Directory of Chandigarh', its economic benefits include use as a fish and arrow poison and an insecticide. — Throughout the spring and early summer, the Moulmein Rosewood's blushing pea-shaped lilac and mauve blossoms appear as jewels on a string. They bloom from April to May. It is a resistant and sturdy tree that can thrive in practically any type of soil as long as it is well-drained. g. Orangutans — Malaysia, the world's second-largest palm oil producer, has faced significant pressure to make its palm oil sector more sustainable. The industry has been related to deforestation, which results in the loss of habitat for orangutans. — These apes live in the rainforests of the Borneo and Sumatra islands, which are shared by Malaysia, Indonesia, and Brunei. According to a World Wildlife Fund estimate, the orangutan population is currently around 120,000 and is under threat from fast deforestation, mostly caused by palm oil plantations. — All three species of orangutan, Bornean orangutan, Sumatran orangutan, and Tapanuli orangutan are classified as Critically Endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). h. Golden langur — Golden langur, also known as 'Sonali Bandar' locally, is confined between the Sankosh River in the west, Manas in the east, the Brahmaputra in the south, and the mountains of Bhutan in the north. — It is an endangered primate found only in northwestern Assam, India, and southern Bhutan. — Golden langurs (Trachypithecus geei) are members of the colobines (subfamily Colobinae), a big Old World monkey family. Colobines are mostly leaf-eating monkeys with ruminant-like multi chambered stomachs. — Golden langurs are listed as a Schedule-I species in the Indian Wildlife Protection Act (1972). a. Kasturirangan Committee — Kasturirangan, a well-known space scientist who also served in the Rajya Sabha and on the erstwhile Planning Commission, died in Bangalore. He was 84 years old and had been suffering from age-related difficulties for the past two years. — He chaired two committees whose reports resulted in important policy changes. His research on the ecology of the Western Ghats, which is largely a review of an earlier report by an environmentalist Madhav Gadgil-led team, serves as the foundation for efforts to restrict human activity in certain parts of the Western Ghats. Kasturirangan also led the group that recommended the New Education Policy. Recommendations of the Kasturirangan committee report — The Kasturirangan committee report proposes 37 per cent of the total area of Western Ghats, which is roughly 60,000 square kilometres, to be declared as eco-sensitive area (ESA). Out of this, 20,668 sq km of the area falls in Karnataka covering 1,576 villages. — The report recommended a blanket ban on mining, quarrying, setting up of red category industries and thermal power projects. — It also stated that the impact of infrastructural projects on the forest and wildlife should be studied before permission is given for these activities. It also stated that the UNESCO Heritage tag is an opportunity to build global and domestic recognition of the enormous natural wealth that exists in the Western Ghats. b. COP 29 (i) Declaration on Reducing Methane from Organic Waste — Recognising that by reducing methane emissions in all relevant sectors, primarily in the fossil energy, agricultural, and waste sectors, by at least 30% below 2020 levels by 2030, the world has the potential to avoid projected global warming by at least 0.2°C by 2050, as outlined in the Global Methane Assessment, this action is critical to keeping global average temperatures below the 1.5°C threshold. — Noting that methane in the waste sector is the rapidly rising source of anthropogenic methane emissions, resulting mostly from the decomposition of organic waste in landfills, open dumps, and wastewater, and contributes about 20% of anthropogenic methane emissions. — India is not a signatory of COP29 Declaration on Reducing Methane from Organic Waste. (ii) Green Energy Pledge: Green Energy Zones and Corridors — To collectively double the global average annual rate of energy efficiency improvements from around 2% to over 4% every year by 2030, and to put the principle of energy efficiency as the 'first fuel' at the core of policymaking, planning, and major investment decisions, as well as the call on Parties in the outcome of the first global stocktake under the Paris Agreement to contribute to the global efforts of transitioning away from fossil fuels in energy systems in a just, orderly and equitable manner. (iii) Baku Initiative for Climate Finance, Investment and Trade (BICFIT) Dialogue — BICFIT Dialogue builds on the growing momentum around the mutually reinforcing role of climate finance, investment, and trade in solving the intersectional issues of climate change and sustainable development, which was acknowledged at COP26, COP27, and COP28. — It is a COP29 Presidency initiative, co-facilitated by UN Trade and Development (UNCTAD) and UN Development Programme (UNDP), in collaboration with the World Trade Organisation (WTO), International Trade Centre (ITC), and the respective COPs of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. — This effort is optional, open to all Parties and observers, and aims to promote information sharing, mutual learning, and cooperation among ministries, governments, and other stakeholders. (iv) Climate Finance Action Fund — The CFAF is part of a large package of proposals that Azerbaijan has prepared for inclusion in the final outcome of COP29 (29th edition of the Conference of Parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change). — The Climate Finance Action Fund (CFAF) would seek 'voluntary' contributions from fossil-fuel producing countries and businesses, with Azerbaijan, a petroleum country, making the first payment. — CFAF will serve as a catalyst for public-private partnerships, activating the private sector and reducing investment risk. It will provide off-take agreement guarantees to small and medium-sized renewable energy providers, as well as first-loss finance for green industrial projects. (Source: c. Article 6 of the Paris Agreement — The 29th United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP29) in Baku, Azerbaijan, ended with disappointment. It is regarded as a failed COP as one aspect of the compromise agreement was the implementation of Article 6 of the Paris Agreement. — Article 6 of the Paris Agreement outlines how countries can work together voluntarily to meet their climate commitments. It promotes international cooperation in combating climate change and unlocks financial assistance for developing countries. — Article 6 allows governments to transfer carbon credits obtained from reducing greenhouse gas emissions to help one or more countries fulfil their climate commitments. ( d. Emissions Gap Report 2024 — According to a new United Nations estimate, China and India, two of the top three emitters, will increase their greenhouse gas emissions by 5.2% and 6.1%, respectively, in 2023. — The UN Environment Programme's annual Emissions Gap Report warned that the Paris Agreement goal of limiting global temperature rise to 1.5 degrees Celsius would be 'gone within a few years' and that the 2 degree Celsius threshold could be breached unless countries dramatically scale up their climate actions to reduce global emissions in two years. e. Ecomark Scheme — It was established in 1991 as a voluntary and non-binding initiative to promote the labelling of household and consumer items based on environmental and quality criteria. — The Rules were notified to ensure that they are consistent with existing sustainability and environmentally friendly practices, as well as the Environment Ministry's Mission LIFE (Lifestyle for Environment), which encourages sustainable consumption. — The criteria include, among other things, reducing pollution by minimising or eliminating waste and environmental emissions, using recycled materials or producing recyclable products, reducing the use of polluting energy sources, and reducing the use of environmentally hazardous materials. — The initiative will be carried out by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) in collaboration with the Bureau of Indian Standards. f. PM E-DRIVE — The Union Cabinet approved a new scheme called PM Electric Drive Revolution in Innovative Vehicle Enhancement (PM E-DRIVE) for the promotion of electric vehicles (EV) in India. — The PM E-DRIVE will replace Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Electric Vehicles in India Phase II (FAME India Phase II). — The new scheme offers subsidies/demand incentives worth Rs 3,679 crore to incentivise the adoption of electric two-wheelers, electric three-wheelers, e-ambulances, e-trucks and other emerging EVs. g. Convention on Biological Diversity — The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) came out of the same 1992 Rio Earth Summit that gave rise to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). — CBD aims to protect global biodiversity, restore natural ecosystems, and ensure that benefits from the world's biological resources are equitably distributed. — The 16th Conference of Parties to the CBD, or COP16, is the first since a historic biodiversity pact was signed two years earlier. This agreement, the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, which was signed at COP15 in Montreal in 2022, establishes four goals and 23 targets to be met collectively by 2030. — The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is an international legal instrument ratified by 196 countries that promotes 'the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilisation of genetic resources.' — The CBD's governing body is the Conference of the Parties (COP). The Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (SCBD) is based in Montreal, Canada. h. Nature Restoration Law — European Union countries gave final approval to a major and long-awaited plan to better protect nature in the 27-nation bloc. The Nature Restoration Plan, which aims to restore ecosystems, species, and habitats in the EU, was finally adopted at a meeting of environment ministers in Luxembourg after receiving support from a qualified majority of 15 of the 27 member states and 65% of the EU population. — The Nature Restoration Law is the first law of its sort to apply to the entire continent. It is an important component of the EU Biodiversity Strategy, which establishes binding targets for restoring damaged ecosystems, particularly those with the greatest potential to collect and store carbon, as well as preventing and mitigating the effects of natural disasters. — The plan requires member states to reach restoration targets for various habitats and species, with the goal of covering at least 20 per cent of the region's land and sea regions by 2030. ( i. Vainganga-Nalganga river-linking project — The Maharashtra state Cabinet has approved the Vidarbha region's ambitious Vainganga-Nalganga river-linking project, which costs Rs 87,342 crore. — Water from the Vainganga river in Godavari sub basin will be fed into the Nalganga project in Buldhana district, west Vidarbha, as part of the project, which seeks to irrigate 3.74 lakh hectares of land. The project will involve the construction of canals totalling 426.52 kilometres in length. j. Gross Environmental Product Index — Uttarakhand's ecosystem growth will henceforth be judged using the Gross Environmental Product (GEP) index. — Uttarakhand is the world's first state to analyse ecosystem growth using the Gross Environmental Product Index. — GEP can be released with GDP in the state. Its appraisal will result in greater harmony between ecology and economy. k. United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) — Every year, World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought is observed to raise awareness about the earth's declining land cover and to encourage people to work together to address this pressing issue. — Currently, one-third of the world's land is degraded, affecting 3.2 billion people, highlighting the gravity of the crisis and the need for immediate action to battle desertification and drought. — In the early 1990s, world leaders met at the Rio Earth Summit to address critical challenges such as desertification, biodiversity loss, and climate change. In response, the United Nations established the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) in 1994. — In 2007, the United Nations named 2010 to 2020 the United Nations Decade for Deserts and the Fight Against Desertification. This campaign aims to promote awareness about the need of land preservation and to stimulate community action to battle desertification and droughts. Subscribe to our UPSC newsletter and stay updated with the news cues from the past week. The UPSC articles of Indian Express is now on Telegram. Join our Telegram channel- Indian Express UPSC Hub and stay updated with the latest Updates. Edited by Manas Srivastava Subscribe to our UPSC newsletter and stay updated with the news cues from the past week. The UPSC articles of Indian Express is now on Telegram. Join our Telegram channel- Indian Express UPSC Hub and stay updated with the latest Updates.
