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From Gods To Code: A Brief History Of Human Meaning
From Gods To Code: A Brief History Of Human Meaning

Forbes

time3 days ago

  • General
  • Forbes

From Gods To Code: A Brief History Of Human Meaning

How to find purpose in an age where even our thinking and creativity can be outsourced to AI. Fantasy Moon over ocean and mountain ridge, Far-side of the moon,Darkside of the Moon Human beings are wired to seek meaning — a subjective sense that life is coherent, purposeful, and significant (even though, in objective terms, it is none of that). From early cognitive psychologists like Jerome Bruner, who argued that we create meaning through narrative, to modern neuroscientists studying the brain's default mode network, the consensus is clear: Meaning isn't a luxury, but a psychological necessity. Indeed, meaning helps us tolerate uncertainty, make sense of chaos, and stay motivated through suffering. It also helps us make sense of ourselves and develop a sense of identity. Viktor Frankl compellingly illustrated that people can endure almost anything if they believe it has meaning. Referencing his own experiences in a Nazi concentration camp he noted 'Those who have a 'why' to live, can bear with almost any 'how'. Neurologically, meaning activates areas tied to reward, self-reflection, and emotion, integrating experiences into coherent stories. It's not given to us — we construct it, and often defend it, especially during crises. Cognitive and emotional systems work together to build and sustain these frameworks — through memory, identity, and perceived agency. Empirical studies show people find meaning most often in relationships, purposeful work, personal growth, and even suffering — particularly when it's reframed. While past societies imported meaning from religion, tradition, or social roles, modern individuals must manufacture their own. This makes meaning deeply personal, but also vulnerable to fragmentation and disillusionment. In the age of AI, where work, creativity, and cognition can be outsourced, we risk losing traditional sources of meaning without obvious replacements. With its impressive repertoire of synthetic knowledge, creativity, and intelligence, AI is forcing us to rethink what truly makes us human (in the sense of our unique capabilities and skills), and what it means to be human in an age in which we outsource even our thinking to machines. If machines can perform the tasks that once made us feel useful, valuable, and unique, what's left for us to build a life around? Furthermore, what does it mean to be human if we can be without thinking? In every era, humans have asked some version of the same question: Why am I here, and what is this all for? It's the same existential riddle posed by philosophers and pop culture alike — from Nietzsche to Tony Montana, who, after climbing the capitalist mountain in Scarface, asks what's left beyond the pile of cocaine and paranoia. Or Citizen Kane's dying whisper of 'Rosebud,' a child's sled standing in for a lost, possibly meaningless life. While the human quest of meaning is perennial, the answers have changed as dramatically as our technology, politics, and hairstyles — from gods and rituals to careers and personal brands. As AI begins to take over not just our labor, but our thinking, our creativity, and our productivity, we're left asking whether meaning itself can be outsourced, and found just one click or prompt away. To understand the scale of this moment, it helps to zoom out — way out — and trace the evolution of meaning across time. Below is a brief intellectual history of what humans have lived for, and how those sources of purpose have shifted with each transformation in how we live and work. 1. Mythic & Tribal Meaning (Prehistory – 600 BCE) Slogan: We are one with the gods. In humanity's earliest chapters, meaning was not something you found — it was something you were born into. Life was interpreted through the lens of nature, spirits, and ancestors. The world was enchanted, alive with gods, totems, and unseen forces. Purpose was communal and ritualistic. You belonged to a tribe, you played your part, and the question of individual meaning rarely emerged. The collective mattered more than the self. You knew who you were by knowing where you belonged. Think of it as the original operating system for meaning — closed-source, pre-installed, and immune to customization. Opting out wasn't a philosophical stance; it was a death sentence or, worse, exile. Today, we call it "community." Back then, it was life. 2. Religious & Divine Order (600 BCE – 1500 CE) Slogan: My purpose is God's plan. With the rise of the Axial Age came organized religions that framed human life as a moral journey, guided by divine command. Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and Hinduism all offered grand narratives in which human beings had cosmic significance. Meaning was found in obedience, sacrifice, and spiritual striving. The purpose of life wasn't invented by the individual — it was discovered in scripture. To live meaningfully was to live rightly, according to sacred law. Fulfillment came in service to a higher power. This was the theological equivalent of a franchise model: the rules came from headquarters, your job was to follow the manual, and if things went wrong, it was your fault for not having enough faith — not a flaw in the system. Think less personal startup, more divine bureaucracy: your life had a mission, but the job description was carved in stone. 3. Rationalism & Humanism (1500 – 1800) Slogan: I think, therefore I Enlightenment changed everything. Reason replaced revelation, and individuals became the new arbiters of truth. Thinkers like Descartes, Locke, and Kant argued that humans could construct meaning through intellect, ethics, and personal autonomy. The Renaissance celebrated the dignity of man; science opened new frontiers. Meaning began to shift from divine will to human capability. Life became a quest not to obey, but to understand — and to act morally out of reason, not just faith. Meaning was no longer handed down from the heavens; it was drafted, debated, and footnoted by men in powdered wigs. Humanity became its own mythmaker — the sole author, editor, and sometimes unreliable narrator of significance. It was as if the universe outsourced meaning to us, trusting we'd be rational (or at least confident) enough not to mess it up. 4. Scientific & Industrial Progress (1800 – 1945) Slogan: To work is to live. As revolutions roared and factories rose, human worth became increasingly tied to productivity. The industrial age recast people as workers — gears in the great machine of economic progress. Purpose was found in contribution: building, inventing, conquering, producing. Even philosophies of meaning (Marxism, nationalism, utilitarianism) took on a mechanistic bent. Labor was no longer just a necessity; it became an identity. Your job wasn't just what you did — it was who you were. It was the age when the soul clocked in. Humans became their CVs, and meaning punched a timecard. Fulfillment was measured not in prayers or principles, but in output per hour — a kind of existential capitalism where your worth was your work ethic, and vacation was moral suspicion. In a way, this was the analogue version of the digital revolution or data-driven capitalism. Meaning through the ages 5. Existentialism & Absurdism (1945 – 1980s) Slogan: Life is meaningless — now make it count. The aftermath of two world wars shattered many of the old certainties. God seemed silent, progress suspect. Philosophers like Camus and Sartre embraced the absurd: life has no inherent meaning, so we must create our own. This was the era of freedom and anxiety, where responsibility became the burden of the individual. Meaning was no longer handed down from on high — it was something you assembled from scratch. You were condemned to be free, and what you made of your life was entirely on you. It was as if the universe had ghosted you — no guidance, no purpose, just infinite autonomy and a vague sense that whatever you did next better be meaningful... or at least look good in a memoir. 6. Consumer Identity (1980s – 2000s) Slogan: I shop, therefore I am. As neoliberalism took hold, the market moved into the space once occupied by the sacred and the social. Identity became a product, and meaning was increasingly expressed through what you bought, wore, posted, and owned. Careers replaced work. Brands filled in for belief systems. You didn't just work a job — you crafted a meaningful lifestyle and aspired to becoming a brand. The rise of advertising, credit, and Facebook made meaning feel personal but hollow. Influencers emerged as human brands and sources of meaning. Consumption became performance, and success was measured in likes, logos, and LinkedIn endorsements. Our digital selves begun to subsume our real selves. 7. Wellbeing & Inner Growth (2000s – 2020s) Slogan: Find your truth. As burnout and disillusionment with materialism set in, a new quest began: inward. Meaning shifted from status to self-awareness, from hustle to healing. Mindfulness apps replaced religious rituals. Therapy-speak became a second language. Self-actualization became the new salvation. You were expected not only to work and consume, but to grow, evolve, and become your "authentic self." This era promised meaning through alignment — between who you are, what you do, and how you feel. This era of existential freedom—where meaning must be handcrafted from the raw materials of one's own psyche—was not without cost. As the contemporary philosopher Byung-Chul Han observes, we have transitioned from a society of repression to one of depression. No longer oppressed by external authority, we are instead crushed by the weight of limitless possibility. 'If you can be anything,' Han warns, 'then you must be everything'— a pressure that turns potential into paralysis. In the absence of fixed roles or inherited purpose, freedom becomes a tyrannical demand for self-creation. The individual is now CEO, brand, therapist, and motivational speaker all in one — like a one-person startup permanently pitching to an invisible investor called 'self-worth,' with exhaustion as the only guaranteed return on investment. 8. AI & Automation (2020s – → ) Slogan: I prompt, therefore I am. And now, we arrive at the present moment — a time in which AI, which had been in the making since the 1960s, finally woke up, going mainstream and beginning to absorb not just our labor, but our cognitive and creative functions. AI can now write, draw, analyze, strategize, and even empathize (or at least simulate it well enough to fool us). The very domains where humans once found purpose — problem-solving, innovation, self-expression — are increasingly shared with, or surrendered to, machines. We are no longer just workers or thinkers; we are prompters — directing generative systems that do the work for us. Meaning becomes mediated through interface. If AI can perform our jobs, generate our ideas, write our stories, even express our feelings — where does that leave us? Are we curators of meaning, or passive consumers of it? Can we still find fulfillment in being the prompt engineers of our own existence? Expertise is no longer about knowing the answer to many questions, but asking the right questions; and creativity, well, it is the human leftover to what AI can't do (or doesn't want to). The optimistic account is that our lives will be more fulfilling because all the boring and predictable tasks can be outsourced to AI; the pessimistic account sees us as the digital version of assembly line workers, training large language models on how to automate us, in the huge virtual factory called AI. 'Ctrl + Alt + Purpose: Rebooting Meaning in the Age of AI' Throughout history, every era has rewritten the script of human meaning — from divine decree to industrial purpose, from moral codes to personal brands. We once searched the skies, then the self; now, we consult the algorithm. Each answer reflected the technologies, fears, and fantasies of its time. But today, meaning has become strangely urgent. When machines can paint, write, and diagnose — even simulate empathy — what's left for us to be? If productivity no longer depends on us, why should purpose? Maybe this is the moment meaning finally stops being about output. Maybe our value isn't in what we produce, but in what we notice, nurture, or choose to care about — in the deliberate, non-automatable act of consciousness. Or maybe we'll just scroll past it, distracted by another synthetic dopamine hit. Either way, in a world where everything can be faked — intelligence, emotion, even purpose — the real danger isn't that AI will outthink us. It's that we'll forget the value of meaning altogether.

Creatine: The bodybuilding supplement that boosts brainpower
Creatine: The bodybuilding supplement that boosts brainpower

BBC News

time5 days ago

  • Health
  • BBC News

Creatine: The bodybuilding supplement that boosts brainpower

Creatine is often taken by people looking to build muscle. Now scientists are investigating the effects this chemical has on our cognition and mood. If you've heard of creatine, it's likely because it's one of the most well-researched supplements. It has long been associated with improved endurance and performance during exercise, and is commonly taken in the form of creatine monohydrate by bodybuilders. But the compound isn't just potentially useful to those looking to expand their muscles. Creatine is a vital chemical ingredient in our bodies, where it is produced naturally within the liver, kidneys and pancreas and stored in our muscles and brains. The creatine we produce typically isn't enough for our total requirements on its own, so most people also rely on sources in their diet – certain foods, such as meat and oily fish, are rich in this nutrient. Creatine helps to manage the energy available to our cells and tissues, and there's emerging evidence that some people might benefit from creatine supplementation. From reducing post-viral fatigue to improving cognitive function in people who are stressed, and even boosting memory, creatine supplements may provide some people with a significant cognitive boost. It's also been speculated that creatine might help to alleviate symptoms in patients with Alzheimer's disease and improve mood. So, are you getting enough creatine? And when is it a good idea to take a supplement? The birth of creatine research The benefits of creatine supplementation were first discovered in the 1970s by the late Roger Harris, a professor from Aberystwyth University in Wales. Creatine has since become well established in the sporting world, with a wealth of research behind it linking it to improvements in our physical function. But over the last two decades, studies have been starting to reveal other potential health benefits of creatine supplements. One of the biggest areas of research is cognitive function, given that creatine plays a role in neogenesis – the formation of new neurons in the brain. When Ali Gordjinejad started to notice studies linking creatine supplementation to working and short-term memory in sleep-deprived people, he saw that they were suggesting that a person had to take creatine for weeks or months to see any benefits. "It was assumed that the body's uptake of creatine cells is marginal, therefore it wouldn't work for only one night of sleep deprivation – until we did our study," says Gordjinejad, a research scientist at the Forschungszentrum Jülich research centre, in Germany. Gordjinejad decided to test the effects of one dose of creatine on cognitive performance following only one night of sleep deprivation. He recruited 15 people, and gave them either a creatine supplement or a placebo at 6pm. He tested their cognitive performance – including reaction times and short-term memories – every two-and-a-half hours until 9am. Gordjinejad found that processing speed was much faster in the creatine group compared with the placebo group. Gordjinejad doesn't know exactly why, but he suspects it's because the sleep deprivation and cognitive tasks put participants' neurons under stress, and this triggers the body to take in more creatine. "If the energy demand is high from cells, then phosphocreatine (which provides energy for short bursts of effort) comes in and acts like an energy reservoir," says Gordjinejad, who explains that dietary creatine can help this reserve to fill up again. If cells need a lot of energy for a short period of time, phosphocreatine can come in and act as an energy reserve, Gordjinejad explains. Though Gordjinejad's study was small, he believes his findings show that creatine could potentially help to overcome the negative effects of sleep deprivation – but only in the short-term, until you sleep. However, the participants in Gordjinejad's study took 10 times the recommended daily dose of creatine – they had 35g, which is around half a glass full of the powdered supplement. (Do not try this at home.) This dose, Gordjinejad says, would pose a risk to people with kidney problems, and in the general population it could cause stomach pains. Gordjinejad plans to conduct a similar trial where he gives participants a smaller dose. He hopes that, in the future, creatine could be used in this way by people who have an unexpected prolonged period of being awake, such as emergency service workers, or students doing their exams. However, Terry McMorris, professor emeritus at the University of Chichester, carried out a review of 15 studies in 2024, and found that research so far fails to support the theory that creatine supplements can improve cognitive function. However, McMorris says this may be because studies he looked at used various different creatine supplement regimens. Also, he explains that many studies relied on outdated cognition tests. "Some date back 1930s – they're too easy, we don't push people enough," he says. But while McMorris says there's not enough evidence to draw any conclusions, he believes it's an area worth more research. Cognitive performance aside Studies are showing a range of other potential health benefits of creatine, including stopping the progress of tumours in some animal studies, and improving menopause symptoms. One reason for this may be that creatine could have a protective antioxidant effect that can help our bodies to weather the effects of stressors. One recent study involving 25,000 people found that, among participants aged 52 and above, for those who had the highest levels of creatine in their diets, each additional 0.09g of creatine over a two-day average was linked to a 14% reduction in cancer risk. Creatine may also have benefits to our mental health. In one study, people with depression were given creatine powder alongside a course of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT). The researchers found that, over eight weeks, their symptoms improved more than those who had CBT without creatine. "One reason creatine might help people with depression is that it's used to a significant degree for energy production and usage in the brain," says Douglas Kalman, adjunct professor of graduate sports nutrition at Florida International University. If creatine levels are low, this affects energy production in the brain, but also the levels of neurotransmitters – chemical signals that allow nerve cells to communicate with each other – he says. This, in turn, can affect a person's mood. This finding may be especially important for vegans, says Sergej Ostojic, professor of nutrition at the University of Agder in Norway. According to some research, this group is at higher risk of depression. Creatine might be at play here, he adds, as vegans have been found to have less creatine in their muscles than those with omnivorous diets. There is even some research suggesting that creatine could even help with chronic conditions. In 2023, Ostojic and colleagues from the University of Novi Sad, Serbia, tested the effects of creatine supplements in 19 patients with long Covid. The researchers gave 4g of creatine to half the participants, and a placebo to the other half. Then they monitored their symptoms, and the levels of creatine in their brain and muscles. After six months, the team found that those who received extra creatine had improved symptoms, including less brain fog and concentration difficulties. The more severe the disease, the lower levels of creatine in their bodies had been at the beginning of the study. "The hypothesis was that the brain, under the stress of long Covid, depletes levels of creatine, which is a critical energy-supplying substance," Ostojic says. While creatine isn't a cure for long Covid, Ostojic concludes, it could provide some benefits. But there's more work to do; he wants to better understand potential gender differences at play when it comes to creatine and conditions such as long Covid. Women are more likely to develop long Covid than men and have a different creatine metabolism. Due to fluctuations in hormones, it's thought that the transport, bioavailability and synthesis of creatine in the body can change throughout a woman's life. Ostojic adds that women tend to lose more creatine through their urine and have lower levels of muscle mass compared to men. Since this is where most creatine is stored, it makes sense that women would have less creatine overall. "My preliminary feeling is that women with long Covid might respond better to creatine supplementation [than men]," he says. The lifecycle One shift in the way creatine has been researched recently is that its role is now being looked at through a person's entire lifecycle, says Kalman. For example, there's a growing body of research showing the important roles creatine may play from conception to a baby's first few years of life. The cells and tissues in our bodies use creatine as an energy source at every stage of reproduction, says Stacey Ellery, an NHMRC Peter Doherty early career research fellow at Monash University Australia. This incudes sperm motility, uterine and placental development, as well as foetal growth and breastmilk. Creatine may also have an important role in reducing the damage caused by a lack of oxygen, says Ellery, such as to foetuses during birth or in the womb. A lack of oxygen can restrict the ability of cells to generate sufficient energy in crucial tissues, such as the placenta and foetal brain, which can stunt their growth or impact their long-term health, she explains. But in the very short term, creatine can allow cells to release energy without needing oxygen. "A creatine supplement can boost the creatine available to cells for energy production during oxygen deprivation," says Ellery. "Consider it like charging a spare battery for a power outage. Keeping the cells energised lowers the risk of serious harm to the developing baby." And creatine may be critical in complicated pregnancies. Ellery has seen in her research how, in pregnant women with the potentially life-threatening condition pre-eclampsia, for example, the placenta can adapt to increase creatine levels in the mother's body. However, the safety of supplementing with creatine during pregnancy has not been studied directly yet in humans and it's important to discuss any supplements with your doctor first. More creatine seems to be sent from the mother to the baby during long and difficult labours, says Ellery, and lower levels of creatine in mothers' blood during the final months of pregnancy have been linked to a higher incidence of stillbirth, preterm birth, smaller babies and admission to intensive care. However, it is unclear why this is the case, or whether supplementing with creatine would be helpful. While research in this area is in the early stages, Ostojic recently published the first calculations of recommended daily creatine intake for infants up to 12 months old. He estimated that exclusively breastfed infants require 7 mg per day up to six months old, then 8.4 mg per day for infants aged 7-12 months. He says more data is needed. And at the other end of the lifecycle, creatine may also help with our muscle health as people develop sarcopenia, an age-related condition that reduces muscle strength and mass. "As people get older, they have less muscle tone," Kalman says. "And studies have shown that creatine could help reduce the amount of sarcopenia." Are we getting enough creatine? There is emerging evidence that most women eating a Western diet don't eat enough creatine-rich foods, says Ellery. A recent study found that six out of 10 women didn't consume the daily creatine intake recommended by researchers (13mg per kg body mass per day) and nearly one fifth of pregnant women consumed no creatine at all. Preliminary studies suggest adults require around 1g of creatine per day. Early data from population studies suggests that depression, cardiometabolic disorders and cancer are more prevalent in people who consume less than 1g of creatine per day. However, there are no official public health recommendations regarding daily creatine intake. Most people are able to get creatine from their diets, Ostojic says, but vegans may be at risk of not getting enough. Creatine is a naturally occurring compound in the body, which means it isn't defined as "essential". Essential nutrients can't be synthesised by the body and, therefore, must be supplied from foods. However, some researchers, including Ostojic, argue that creatine should be categorised as semi-essential, as it appears we can't synthesise enough. "A couple of studies suggest people who don't get any creatine from food have lower levels of creatine in their muscles, suggesting they're not able get it to the optimum point," says Ostojic. Creatine is not a silver bullet, he says, but argues it should be evaluated properly and evidence-based guidance should given to the population. Despite being the focus of many studies – and lacking in many people's diets – research on creatine's health benefits throughout our lives is still in its early stages. Researchers including Ellery are hopeful, though, that the rising academic interest in creatine will eventually translate into public health interest, so that we know which population groups would benefit from creatine supplements. * All content within this column is provided for general information only and should not be treated as a substitute for the medical advice of your own doctor or any other health care professional. The BBC is not responsible or liable for any diagnosis made by a user based on the content of this site. The BBC is not liable for the contents of any external internet sites listed, nor does it endorse any commercial product or service mentioned or advised on any of the sites. Always consult your own GP if you're in any way concerned about your health. -- For trusted insights into better health and wellbeing rooted in science, sign up to the Health Fix newsletter, while The Essential List delivers a handpicked selection of features and insights. For more science, technology, environment and health stories from the BBC, follow us on Facebook, X and Instagram.

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