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Yahoo
3 days ago
- Business
- Yahoo
Bujang Valley, Bukit Choras an integral part of Southeast Asia's ancient history
The recent International Conference on the Early History of Southeast Asia brought together renowned scholars from Southeast Asian countries – Thailand, Indonesia, Cambodia, China, India and host Malaysia – to discuss maritime trade and the presence of Hindu-Buddhist influences in the region during the early historical period. Organised by Universiti Sains Malaysia's Centre for Global Archaeological Research, the Institute of Malay Civilisation at Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, and the Department of National Heritage, the event also focused on positioning Kedah Tua as among the oldest known civilisations in Southeast Asia. The conference provided a platform for the exchange of knowledge on early maritime trade, archaeological findings and excavations, and the religious and cultural influences that shaped this region. Scholars affirmed the role of Kedah Tua (ancient Kedah) and Bujang Valley as one of the main focal points of maritime trade between West Asia – specifically India – and the west coast of the peninsula, from the tip of the Isthmus of Kra down to Bruas. Their presentations confirmed the influence of Hindu-Buddhist religion in Thailand, Cambodia, Indonesia, and Kedah Tua. Kedah Tua was one of the main entrepôt centres in Peninsular Malaysia, connected to other ports in the Southeast Asian region. It had trading links with cultural and economic hubs in the north, such as the Thai coastal cities of Khao Sam Kaeo, Khamaukgi, Lang Suan and the Khiong Thom Complex. In fact, the Orang Laut or sea nomads of Ko Lanta and the islands off southern Thailand in the Andaman Sea – whose ancestral home is believed to be Gunung Jerai – once traded with the Khiong Thom Complex, the southernmost part of the early Thai city-states nearest to Kedah Tua. Trade routes during this period centred on the Isthmus of Kra, with a narrow overland crossing (50 km) that connected the Bay of Bengal and the South China Sea. Kedah Tua, which existed from the 2nd to the 14th century AD, stretched along the west coast of the peninsula from the Isthmus of Kra to Bruas. Bujang Valley was its commercial and population hub, centred on the Sungai Muda Complex, with subsidiary centres at Sungai Bujang and Sungai Batu. The existence of Kedah Tua is recorded in Indian, Arab, and Chinese sources, as well as local records. It was referred to as Kadaram in Tamil, Kataha in Sanskrit, Chieh-Cha in Chinese, and Kalah in Arabic. Its location at the entrance of the Straits of Malacca – opening to the Andaman Sea and Bay of Bengal – favoured contact with Eastern and Southern India and other regional maritime ports. Its natural harbour and indigenous coastal and riverine settlements attracted traders who sailed with the monsoon winds. By the time the first Indian traders arrived, indigenous coastal settlements already existed at estuaries and riverbanks. Local religious and cultural practices – largely animistic – blended easily with the Hindu-Buddhist beliefs brought by Indian traders. Bujang Valley's status as a trade and commerce centre declined between the 15th and 18th centuries. Kedah had become a Muslim sultanate following the advent of Islam via Perlak and Pasai in the 13th century, which then spread across the Straits of Malacca into the peninsula. Although archaeological excavations point to the presence of Hindu-Buddhist culture in Bujang Valley, other faiths were also practised – including those of Arab and Chinese traders, as well as indigenous animism. Indian traders introduced Hinduism and Buddhism to the region, as evidenced by the widespread presence of candis and stupas. Among the most famous are Angkor Wat (12th century) in Cambodia and Borobudur (9th century) in Magelang, Java. Numerous terracotta statues from Bukit Choras, along with inscriptions, pottery, beads, jewellery and ceramics, confirm the region's Hindu-Buddhist heritage. The culture was not purely Indian but a hybrid, blending with indigenous beliefs. Seventeen well-preserved temple sites in Bujang Valley – including Bukit Choras, Ladang Sungai Batu, Bukit Batu Pahat, Kampung Pendiat, Pengkalan Bujang, and Permatang Pasir – located within the Sungai Batu, Pengkalan Bujang and Batu Pahat archaeological complexes, testify to the region's commercial trading settlements and Hindu-Buddhist influence. The connectivity of Kedah Tua with other maritime states 1. Architectural structure of the candis Candis across Southeast Asia share structural similarities, with local variations. The Bukit Choras structure resembles stupas in Ratnagiri and Udayagiri (India), and those from the Dvaravati period in central Thailand – square-based with niches housing Buddha images. However, the Bukit Choras stupa is smaller and simpler than the multi-tiered stupas of Thailand. Similar square stupas are found at Yarang (Pattani) and Candi Blandongan (Batujaya, West Java). Cambodia has a variety of simple to complex stupas. One of the earliest is the Piprahwa stupa. These architectural similarities across Bujang Valley, Thailand, Cambodia and Indonesia reflect a shared Hindu-Buddhist legacy and a link to Indian and Sri Lankan traditions. 2. The Buddha image Hindu-Buddhist images and stupas built by Indian traders are found throughout the region. Sculptures and reliefs include standing and sitting Buddha figures. Two standing Buddha types are commonly found: a. Varada mudra: right hand open and lowered, left holding the robe – found in Central Thailand and Bujang Valley (e.g. bronze standing Buddha in Kampung Pendiat, 6th–7th century). b. Dharmachakra mudra: both hands at chest level – also seen in Dvaravati-style images. Sitting Buddha images include: (i) Dharmachakra mudra – hands at chest level. (ii) Bhumisparsa mudra – right hand touching earth, left on lap. (iii) Varada mudra – right hand down, left holding alms bowl. (iv) Dhyana mudra – both hands in lap, palms up (e.g. Bukit Choras). (v) Abhaya mudra – left palm forward at shoulder, right hand down. Sitting Buddhas at Borobudur show Dharmachakra and Dhyana mudras. In Laos, they often appear in Bhumisparsa and Abhaya mudras. Cambodian and Chinese Buddhas (e.g. Shanxi, Guangzhou) also reflect these forms. These stylistic similarities show the spread of religious art and belief through maritime trade. 3. Inscriptions Inscriptions provide further evidence linking Kedah Tua and Bujang Valley with other Southeast Asian centres. Buddhist mantras (Mahayana sect) dating from the 6th to 14th centuries were found in Bukit Choras, Sungai Mas and Sungai Batu. Inscriptions were also found on stelae – upright stone slabs – like the Ram Khamhaeng Inscription (Thailand, 1292), Phimanakas stele (Cambodia), and the Buddhagupta stele discovered in Seberang Perai (Penang), which resembles those in southern Thailand. The Pallava script used is similar to that of King Purnavarman's inscriptions in Java. Other notable inscriptions include the Kutai/Mulavarman Inscription (Indonesia), the Khmer Sambor Inscription (683 CE), and inscriptions in Pali, Sanskrit and Khmer. The early history of Southeast Asia is a tapestry of cultural expression, shaped by maritime trade and unified by shared religious practices. Hindu-Buddhist beliefs predominated, evidenced by the archaeological remnants – stupas, images, inscriptions and traded goods such as beads, ceramics, pottery and jewellery. Kedah Tua, Bujang Valley and Bukit Choras are an integral part of this archaeological matrix. They reflect a shared philosophical and metaphysical understanding of existence – expressed through religion, trade and cultural exchange – that binds the region together in both cosmic and physical dimensions. Main image: Ghouse (left; in blue) at Bukit Choras in Yan on May 18, 2025.
The National
5 days ago
- Business
- The National
EU seeks Gulf allies in quest to protect Red Sea
The two shores of the Red Sea – the Gulf region and Horn of Africa – and the European Union should come together to strengthen security and protect joint interests in the crucial global waterway, a EU envoy told The National on Thursday. The Red Sea is one of the world's most vital arteries for global shipping, with up to 15 per cent of the world's maritime trade passing through. But situated between the Gulf region and the Horn of Africa, it has not remained immune to the conflict surrounding it. Yemen's Houthi rebels have carried out several attacks on shipping lanes since November 2023, claiming solidarity with Palestinians in Gaza under Israeli bombardment – with Red Sea shipping only now beginning to recover. Simultaneously, conflict continues in Sudan and in Somalia, where the threat of Al Shabab is also growing. 'The two shores of the Red Sea together with the EU' should combine efforts to 'discuss joint interests, joint possibilities to strengthen security in the Red Sea', said Annette Weber, EU Special Representative to the Horn of Africa. 'We all use it for our trade, for LNG, green hydrogen, underwater connectivity,' Ms Weber said of the waterway's strategic importance and the need to collaborate on securing it. Ms Weber said that while bilateral engagement takes place between individual countries from the Gulf and the Horn of Africa, there is not much regional co-operation. 'A structure needs to be envisaged together,' she said. 'It needs initial effort for us to have a group, to talk, to see what our common ideas are.' She said there was no such multilateral initiative yet but that 'we hope to start very soon' because the threats are coming from both sides of the Red Sea. 'We have the Houthis, we have Al Shabab, we have ISIS, we have the risk of, for example, Sudan working closely with Iran in the Red Sea – that is not in our interest.' While Europe does not have a physical shore on the Red Sea, its trade has been significantly impacted by the attacks on the shipping lane. 'Everyone is suffering – including Europe – because of the Houthi attacks,' she said. A truce, mediated by Oman, has been in place since last month between the Houthis and the US which stipulates that the Iran-backed group would refrain from attacking vessels in the Red Sea. The agreement came after weeks of intensified US bombardment on Houthi targets in Yemen and growing frustration with Europe in the current administration. Fading US support Ms Weber said the leaked Signal group chat – where top US officials were sharing Yemen war plans – was a wake up call for the EU. 'I just hate bailing Europe out again,' US Vice President JD Vance was reported as writing in the leaked conversation. Defence Secretary Pete Hegseth replied: 'Vice President, I fully share your loathing of European free-loading. It's pathetic.' 'The US has made it very clear. I don't see them leaving tomorrow, but I think it's very clear,' Ms Weber said of a lack of desire by the US to continue financially supporting the EU's security in the Red Sea. The EU launched Operation Aspides – named after the Greek word for 'shield' – in February last year in response to Houthi attacks on shipping in the Gulf of Aden and Red Sea to the Suez Canal. It provides close protection for commercial ships, intercepts strikes on them, and monitors and assesses potential threats. Red Sea marine traffic has increased by 60 per cent, to 36 to 37 ships a day, since August last year, but is still short of volumes seen before Yemen's Houthis began attacking ships in the region, the commander of the Aspides naval mission told Reuters on Thursday. Ms Weber praised the EU's co-operation and engagement with the Gulf countries with regards to the Red Sea, but also in Sudan and Somalia. Gulf and the Horn of Africa 'It is clear that the Gulf countries are playing a very key role in the Horn of Africa, in the Red Sea and that is something where we feel this is not just a joint challenge but also a joint opportunity,' she said. The co-operation goes beyond security, with both working on wider interests including energy diversification, water harvesting and investment. 'Of course the humanitarian catastrophe in Sudan is a key aspect and we do work and co-ordinate quite closely.' Famine has been detected in at least five areas of Sudan, including three camps for displaced people in Darfur, the Integrated Food Security Classification has said. The UN and rights groups have repeatedly warned of the dire humanitarian situation on the ground. Ms Weber described that conflict as obstructing the delivery of aid and stressed the need for more to be done to ensure that humanitarian assistance is provided. Aid groups say they struggle to reach the most vulnerable as warring parties limit access, especially in Darfur. A convoy of 15 lorries carrying food to the famine-stricken city of El Fasher came under attack in North Darfur late on Monday. Five were killed and several others injured, said the World Food Programme and Unicef, the two UN agencies involved. The war has killed tens of thousands of people, displaced about 13 million and left more than 25 million facing acute hunger, famine conditions are reported in areas across the impoverished nation. 'For the EU, it's still important to say and to understand that for us the future of Sudan is a civilian-led government, it's not either military ruling the country,' Ms Weber said. 'This is really where we need to come back to what they have promised, even before the coup,' she said of the pledges made by both sides to ensure a future government would be chosen by the people. 'We need to bring the young people back because they are the future of the country,' she said of the EU's vision for peace in a postwar Sudan. Several attempts have been made to push for an end to the conflict such as the Jeddah talks, which began weeks after the fighting broke out. They have focused on establishing ceasefires, enabling the delivery of humanitarian assistance and confidence-building measures towards a permanent cessation of hostilities but have fallen short of reaching a truce. 'As a military, you provide security for your country, you don't rule the country,' she added while calling for another Jeddah-type format to be held soon to reach an end to the fighting. However, Ms Weber acknowledged that Sudanese returning to Khartoum was a hopeful and positive indication that there was a will to become back to Sudan. But, she warned of the need to ensure safety and basic necessities such as electricity and water for those returning. In addition to Sudan, the envoy highlighted that the EU was moving in the same direction as regional countries such as Egypt and the UAE, with Somalia being another example of co-operation. Recent reductions in US aid and military support could potentially undermine efforts to combat Al Shabab and a possible American withdrawal from the country could leave a gap. 'We see the US moving away from Mogadishu more towards the north of Somalia, towards the shore with the Red Sea,' she said of shifting American interests and priorities in the country. 'They understand Al Shabab less as an international terrorist threat and see it more as a domestic threat.'
