How was the wheel invented? Computer simulations reveal the unlikely birth of a world-changing technology nearly 6,000 years ago
Imagine you're a copper miner in southeastern Europe in the year 3900 B.C.E. Day after day you haul copper ore through the mine's sweltering tunnels.
You've resigned yourself to the grueling monotony of mining life. Then one afternoon, you witness a fellow worker doing something remarkable.
With an odd-looking contraption, he casually transports the equivalent of three times his body weight on a single trip. As he returns to the mine to fetch another load, it suddenly dawns on you that your chosen profession is about to get far less taxing and much more lucrative.
What you don't realize: You're witnessing something that will change the course of history – not just for your tiny mining community, but for all of humanity.
Despite the wheel's immeasurable impact, no one is certain as to who invented it, or when and where it was first conceived. The hypothetical scenario described above is based on a 2015 theory that miners in the Carpathian Mountains – now Hungary – first invented the wheel nearly 6,000 years ago as a means to transport copper ore.
The theory is supported by the discovery of more than 150 miniaturized wagons by archaeologists working in the region. These pint-sized, four-wheeled models were made from clay, and their outer surfaces were engraved with a wickerwork pattern reminiscent of the basketry used by mining communities at the time. Carbon dating later revealed that these wagons are the earliest known depictions of wheeled transport to date.
This theory also raises a question of particular interest to me, an aerospace engineer who studies the science of engineering design. How did an obscure, scientifically naive mining society discover the wheel, when highly advanced civilizations, such as the ancient Egyptians, did not?
It has long been assumed that wheels evolved from simple wooden rollers. But until recently no one could explain how or why this transformation took place. What's more, beginning in the 1960s, some researchers started to express strong doubts about the roller-to-wheel theory.
After all, for rollers to be useful, they require flat, firm terrain and a path free of inclines and sharp curves. Furthermore, once the cart passes them, used rollers need to be continually brought around to the front of the line to keep the cargo moving. For all these reasons, the ancient world used rollers sparingly. According to the skeptics, rollers were too rare and too impractical to have been the starting point for the evolution of the wheel.
But a mine – with its enclosed, human-made passageways – would have provided favorable conditions for rollers. This factor, among others, compelled my team to revisit the roller hypothesis.
The transition from rollers to wheels requires two key innovations. The first is a modification of the cart that carries the cargo. The cart's base must be outfitted with semicircular sockets, which hold the rollers in place. This way, as the operator pulls the cart, the rollers are pulled along with it.
This innovation may have been motivated by the confined nature of the mine environment, where having to periodically carry used rollers back around to the front of the cart would have been especially onerous.
The discovery of socketed rollers represented a turning point in the evolution of the wheel and paved the way for the second and most important innovation. This next step involved a change to the rollers themselves. To understand how and why this change occurred, we turned to physics and computer-aided engineering.
To begin our investigation, we created a computer program designed to simulate the evolution from a roller to a wheel. Our hypothesis was that this transformation was driven by a phenomenon called 'mechanical advantage.' This same principle allows pliers to amplify a user's grip strength by providing added leverage. Similarly, if we could modify the shape of the roller to generate mechanical advantage, this would amplify the user's pushing force, making it easier to advance the cart.
Our algorithm worked by modeling hundreds of potential roller shapes and evaluating how each one performed, both in terms of mechanical advantage and structural strength. The latter was used to determine whether a given roller would break under the weight of the cargo. As predicted, the algorithm ultimately converged upon the familiar wheel-and-axle shape, which it determined to be optimal.
During the execution of the algorithm, each new design performed slightly better than its predecessor. We believe a similar evolutionary process played out with the miners 6,000 years ago.
It is unclear what initially prompted the miners to explore alternative roller shapes. One possibility is that friction at the roller-socket interface caused the surrounding wood to wear away, leading to a slight narrowing of the roller at the point of contact. Another theory is that the miners began thinning out the rollers so that their carts could pass over small obstructions on the ground.
Either way, thanks to mechanical advantage, this narrowing of the axle region made the carts easier to push. As time passed, better-performing designs were repeatedly favored over the others, and new rollers were crafted to mimic these top performers.
Consequently, the rollers became more and more narrow, until all that remained was a slender bar capped on both ends by large discs. This rudimentary structure marks the birth of what we now refer to as 'the wheel.'
According to our theory, there was no precise moment at which the wheel was invented. Rather, just like the evolution of species, the wheel emerged gradually from an accumulation of small improvements.
This is just one of the many chapters in the wheel's long and ongoing evolution. More than 5,000 years after the contributions of the Carpathian miners, a Parisian bicycle mechanic invented radial ball bearings, which once again revolutionized wheeled transportation.
Ironically, ball bearings are conceptually identical to rollers, the wheel's evolutionary precursor. Ball bearings form a ring around the axle, creating a rolling interface between the axle and the wheel hub, thereby circumventing friction. With this innovation, the evolution of the wheel came full circle.
This example also shows how the wheel's evolution, much like its iconic shape, traces a circuitous path – one with no clear beginning, no end, and countless quiet revolutions along the way.
This article is republished from The Conversation, a nonprofit, independent news organization bringing you facts and trustworthy analysis to help you make sense of our complex world. It was written by: Kai James, Georgia Institute of Technology
Read more:
Disaster evacuations can take much longer than people expect − computer simulations could help save lives and avoid chaos
The horse bit and bridle kicked off ancient empires – a new giant dataset tracks the societal factors that drove military technology
The mysterious biomechanics of riding – and balancing – a bicycle
Kai James receives funding from The National Science Foundation.
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San Francisco Chronicle
a day ago
- San Francisco Chronicle
Solstices brought Mayan communities together, using monuments shaped by science and religion – and kingly ambitions, too
Eds: This story was supplied by The Conversation for AP customers. The Associated Press does not guarantee the content. Gerardo Aldana, University of California, Santa Barbara (THE CONVERSATION) K'ahk' Uti' Witz' K'awiil knew his history. For 11 generations, the Mayan ruler's dynasty had ruled Copan, a city-state near today's border between Honduras and Guatemala. From the fifth century C.E. into the seventh century, scribes painted his ancestors' genealogies into manuscripts and carved them in stone monuments throughout the city. Around 650, one particular piece of architectural history appears to have caught his eye. Centuries before, village masons built special structures for public ceremonies to view the Sun – ceremonies that were temporally anchored to the solstices, like the one that will occur June 20, 2025. Building these types of architectural complexes, which archaeologists call 'E-Groups,' had largely fallen out of fashion by K'ahk' Uti' Witz' K'awiil's time. But aiming to realize his ambitious plans for his city, he seems to have found inspiration in these astronomical public spaces, as I've written about in my research on ancient Mayan hieroglyphically recorded astronomy. K'ahk' Uti' Witz' K'awiil's innovations are a reminder that science changes through discovery or invention – but also occasionally for personal or political purposes, particularly in the ancient world. E-Groups were first constructed in the Mayan region as early as 1000 B.C.E. The site of Ceibal, on the banks of the Pasión River in central Guatemala, is one such example. There, residents built a long, plastered platform bordering the eastern edge of a large plaza. Three structures were arranged along a north-south axis atop this platform, with roofs tall enough to rise above the rainforest floral canopy. Within the center of the plaza, to the west of the platform, they built a radially symmetric pyramid. From there, observers could follow sunrise behind and between the structures on the platform over the course of the year. At one level, the earliest E-Group complexes served very practical purposes. In Preclassic villages where these complexes have been found, like Ceibal, populations of several hundred to a few thousand lived on 'milpa' or 'slash-and-burn' farming techniques practices still maintained in pueblos throughout Mesoamerica today. Farmers chop down brush vegetation, then burn it to fertilize the soil. This requires careful attention to the rainy season, which was tracked in ancient times by following the position of the rising Sun at the horizon. Most of the sites in the Classic Mayan heartland, however, are located in flat, forested landscapes with few notable features along the horizon. Only a green sea of the floral canopy meets the eye of an observer standing on a tall pyramid. By punctuating the horizon, the eastern structures of E-Group complexes could be used to mark the solar extremes. Sunrise behind the northernmost structure of the eastern platform would be observed on the summer solstice. Sunrise behind the southernmost structure marked the winter solstice. The equinoxes could be marked halfway between, when the Sun rose due east. Scholars are still debating key factors of these complexes, but their religious significance is well attested. Caches of finely worked jade and ritual pottery reflect a cosmology oriented around the four cardinal directions, which may have coordinated with the E-Group's division of the year. Fading knowledge K'ahk' Uti' Witz' K'awiil's citizenry, however, would have been less attuned to direct celestial observations than their ancestors. By the seventh century, Mayan political organization had changed significantly. Copan had grown to as many as 25,000 residents, and agricultural technologies also changed to keep up. Cities of the Classic period practiced multiple forms of intensive agriculture that relied on sophisticated water management strategies, buffering the need to meticulously follow the horizon movement of the Sun. E-Group complexes continued to be built into the Classic period, but they were no longer oriented to sunrise, and they served political or stylistic purposes rather than celestial views. Such a development, I think, resonates today. People pay attention to the changing of the seasons, and they know when the summer solstice occurs thanks to a calendar app on their phones. But they probably don't remember the science: how the tilt of the Earth and its path around the Sun make it appear as though the Sun itself travels north or south along the eastern horizon. United through ritual During the mid-seventh century, K'ahk' Uti' Witz' K'awiil had developed ambitious plans for his city – and astronomy provided one opportunity to help achieve them. He is known today for his extravagant burial chamber, exemplifying the success he eventually achieved. This tomb is located in the heart of a magnificent structure, fronted by the 'Hieroglyphic Stairway ': a record of his dynasty's history that is one of the largest single inscriptions in ancient history. Eying opportunities to transform Copan into a regional power, K'ahk' Uti' Witz' K'awiil looked for alliances beyond his local nobility, and he reached out to nearby villages. Over the past century, several scholars, including me, have investigated the astronomical component to his plan. It appears that K'ahk' Uti' Witz' K'awiil commissioned a set of stone monuments or 'stelae,' positioned within the city and in the foothills of the Copan Valley, which tracked the Sun along the horizon. Like E-Group complexes, these monuments engaged the public in solar observations. Taken together, the stelae created a countdown to an important calendric event, orchestrated by the Sun. Back in the 1920s, archaeologist Sylvanus Morley noted that from Stela 12, to the east of the city, one could witness the Sun set behind Stela 10, on a foothill to the west, twice each year. Half a century later, archaeoastronomer Anthony Aveni recognized that these two sunsets defined 20-day intervals relative to the equinoxes and the zenith passage of the Sun, when shadows of vertical objects disappear. Twenty days is an important interval in the Mayan calendar and corresponds to the length of a 'month' in the solar year. My own research showed that the dates on several stelae also commemorate some of these 20-day interval events. In addition, they all lead up to a once-every-20-year event called a 'katun end.' K'ahk' Uti' Witz' K'awiil celebrated this katun end, setting his plans for regional hegemony in motion at Quirigua, a growing, influential city some 30 miles away. A round altar there carries an image of him, commemorating his arrival. The hieroglyphic text tells us that K'ahk' Uti' Witz' K'awiil 'danced' at Quirigua, cementing an alliance between the two cities. In other words, K'ahk' Uti' Witz' K'awiil's 'solar stelae' did more than track the Sun. The monuments brought communities together to witness astronomical events for shared cultural and religious experiences, reaching across generations. Coming together to appreciate the natural cycles that make life on Earth possible is something that – I hope – will never fade with fashion.
Yahoo
a day ago
- Yahoo
How was the wheel invented? Computer simulations reveal the unlikely birth of a world-changing technology nearly 6,000 years ago
Imagine you're a copper miner in southeastern Europe in the year 3900 B.C.E. Day after day you haul copper ore through the mine's sweltering tunnels. You've resigned yourself to the grueling monotony of mining life. Then one afternoon, you witness a fellow worker doing something remarkable. With an odd-looking contraption, he casually transports the equivalent of three times his body weight on a single trip. As he returns to the mine to fetch another load, it suddenly dawns on you that your chosen profession is about to get far less taxing and much more lucrative. What you don't realize: You're witnessing something that will change the course of history – not just for your tiny mining community, but for all of humanity. Despite the wheel's immeasurable impact, no one is certain as to who invented it, or when and where it was first conceived. The hypothetical scenario described above is based on a 2015 theory that miners in the Carpathian Mountains – now Hungary – first invented the wheel nearly 6,000 years ago as a means to transport copper ore. The theory is supported by the discovery of more than 150 miniaturized wagons by archaeologists working in the region. These pint-sized, four-wheeled models were made from clay, and their outer surfaces were engraved with a wickerwork pattern reminiscent of the basketry used by mining communities at the time. Carbon dating later revealed that these wagons are the earliest known depictions of wheeled transport to date. This theory also raises a question of particular interest to me, an aerospace engineer who studies the science of engineering design. How did an obscure, scientifically naive mining society discover the wheel, when highly advanced civilizations, such as the ancient Egyptians, did not? It has long been assumed that wheels evolved from simple wooden rollers. But until recently no one could explain how or why this transformation took place. What's more, beginning in the 1960s, some researchers started to express strong doubts about the roller-to-wheel theory. After all, for rollers to be useful, they require flat, firm terrain and a path free of inclines and sharp curves. Furthermore, once the cart passes them, used rollers need to be continually brought around to the front of the line to keep the cargo moving. For all these reasons, the ancient world used rollers sparingly. According to the skeptics, rollers were too rare and too impractical to have been the starting point for the evolution of the wheel. But a mine – with its enclosed, human-made passageways – would have provided favorable conditions for rollers. This factor, among others, compelled my team to revisit the roller hypothesis. The transition from rollers to wheels requires two key innovations. The first is a modification of the cart that carries the cargo. The cart's base must be outfitted with semicircular sockets, which hold the rollers in place. This way, as the operator pulls the cart, the rollers are pulled along with it. This innovation may have been motivated by the confined nature of the mine environment, where having to periodically carry used rollers back around to the front of the cart would have been especially onerous. The discovery of socketed rollers represented a turning point in the evolution of the wheel and paved the way for the second and most important innovation. This next step involved a change to the rollers themselves. To understand how and why this change occurred, we turned to physics and computer-aided engineering. To begin our investigation, we created a computer program designed to simulate the evolution from a roller to a wheel. Our hypothesis was that this transformation was driven by a phenomenon called 'mechanical advantage.' This same principle allows pliers to amplify a user's grip strength by providing added leverage. Similarly, if we could modify the shape of the roller to generate mechanical advantage, this would amplify the user's pushing force, making it easier to advance the cart. Our algorithm worked by modeling hundreds of potential roller shapes and evaluating how each one performed, both in terms of mechanical advantage and structural strength. The latter was used to determine whether a given roller would break under the weight of the cargo. As predicted, the algorithm ultimately converged upon the familiar wheel-and-axle shape, which it determined to be optimal. During the execution of the algorithm, each new design performed slightly better than its predecessor. We believe a similar evolutionary process played out with the miners 6,000 years ago. It is unclear what initially prompted the miners to explore alternative roller shapes. One possibility is that friction at the roller-socket interface caused the surrounding wood to wear away, leading to a slight narrowing of the roller at the point of contact. Another theory is that the miners began thinning out the rollers so that their carts could pass over small obstructions on the ground. Either way, thanks to mechanical advantage, this narrowing of the axle region made the carts easier to push. As time passed, better-performing designs were repeatedly favored over the others, and new rollers were crafted to mimic these top performers. Consequently, the rollers became more and more narrow, until all that remained was a slender bar capped on both ends by large discs. This rudimentary structure marks the birth of what we now refer to as 'the wheel.' According to our theory, there was no precise moment at which the wheel was invented. Rather, just like the evolution of species, the wheel emerged gradually from an accumulation of small improvements. This is just one of the many chapters in the wheel's long and ongoing evolution. More than 5,000 years after the contributions of the Carpathian miners, a Parisian bicycle mechanic invented radial ball bearings, which once again revolutionized wheeled transportation. Ironically, ball bearings are conceptually identical to rollers, the wheel's evolutionary precursor. Ball bearings form a ring around the axle, creating a rolling interface between the axle and the wheel hub, thereby circumventing friction. With this innovation, the evolution of the wheel came full circle. This example also shows how the wheel's evolution, much like its iconic shape, traces a circuitous path – one with no clear beginning, no end, and countless quiet revolutions along the way. This article is republished from The Conversation, a nonprofit, independent news organization bringing you facts and trustworthy analysis to help you make sense of our complex world. It was written by: Kai James, Georgia Institute of Technology Read more: Disaster evacuations can take much longer than people expect − computer simulations could help save lives and avoid chaos The horse bit and bridle kicked off ancient empires – a new giant dataset tracks the societal factors that drove military technology The mysterious biomechanics of riding – and balancing – a bicycle Kai James receives funding from The National Science Foundation.
Health Line
02-06-2025
- Health Line
What Are the Most Effective Natural Antibiotics?
Certain plant extracts, essential oils, and even foods have antibiotic properties. For example, some food and vegetable extracts can prevent the growth of bacteria in food. This includes garlic, honey, and certain herbs. Antibiotics are used to kill or inhibit bacteria growth. Although you might think of antibiotics as modern medicine, they've actually been around for centuries. Like many of today's antibiotics, the original antibiotics are derived from natural sources. Sometimes, the properties of these natural sources extend beyond the food and can aid in your personal hygiene. Cranberry extract contains antibacterial and antioxidant compounds, making it a home remedy for urinary tract infections (UTIs). Herbs can be antibiotics, too. A small sampling study of 58 Chinese plants found that 23 had antibacterial properties and 15 had antifungal properties. A 2014 study found that an herbal therapy was just as effective as a chemical antibiotic in treating a small intestine bacterial overgrowth disorder. Keep reading to learn about five natural remedies with antibiotic effects you can try at home. Honey Honey is one of the oldest known antibiotics, dating to ancient times. Egyptians frequently used honey as a natural antibiotic and skin protectant. Honey contains hydrogen peroxide, which may account for some of its antibacterial properties. It also has a high sugar content, which can help stop the growth of certain bacteria. Additionally, honey has a low pH level. This works to pull moisture away from bacteria, causing them to become dehydrated and die off. To use honey as an antibiotic, apply it directly to the wound or infected area. The honey can help kill off the bacteria and aid in the healing process. If possible, opt for raw Manuka honey. This form of honey offers the most health benefits. You can also ingest honey to aid in the treatment of internal infections. For a soothing treat, simply swallow a whole tablespoon or stir it into a warm cup of herbal tea. Honey is generally safe to use on the skin or in the body, though you should never give honey to an infant under a year old. Instead, consult your healthcare professional for an appropriate alternative. Garlic extract Garlic has long been thought to have antimicrobial properties. A 2021 review concluded that the organosulfur compounds in garlic are effective against a wide variety of bacteria. You can purchase garlic concentrate or extract at your local health food store. You may also be able to make your own by soaking a few garlic cloves in olive oil. Garlic is generally safe to ingest, but large doses might cause internal bleeding. Up to two cloves per day is considered an acceptable dosage. If you're taking a garlic supplement, be sure to follow the dosage directions as provided. If you're taking blood-thinning medication, consult your healthcare provider before using garlic as an antibiotic. Large doses of garlic can amplify the effects of this medication. You can also apply garlic concentrate directly to a wound or blemish. Myrrh extract Many people are familiar with myrrh, but its ability to ward off harmful germs is less well-known. Researchers in a 2000 study concluded that an extract of myrrh could kill off several everyday pathogens. This includes: E. coli Staphylococcus aureus Pseudomonas aeruginosa Candida albicans A 2020 in vitro study found that myrrh oil preferentially kills nongrowing bacteria without the organisms building any resistance. Typically, nongrowing bacteria tend to be more antibiotic-resistant than growing bacteria. Myrrh is generally well-tolerated, but ingesting it may cause diarrhea. If myrrh is applied to the skin, it's possible to experience a minor skin rash. If consumed in large doses, myrrh may cause heart problems. Myrrh is typically prepackaged, so be sure to follow the dosage instructions on the label. Thyme essential oil Many all-natural household cleaners use thyme essential oil. This oil has been shown to be especially helpful against antibiotic-resistant bacteria. In a 2011 study, researchers tested the effectiveness of both lavender and thyme essential oils. Both oils were tested in a pool of over 120 strains of bacteria. The researchers found thyme essential oil to be more effective at killing bacteria than lavender essential oil. Thyme essential oil is for external use only. You shouldn't take thyme oil by mouth. Before applying to the affected area, be sure to dilute the essential oil with equal parts carrier oil. Common carrier oils include coconut and olive oils. Applying undiluted essential oil to the skin may cause inflammation and irritation. People with high blood pressure or hyperthyroid problems shouldn't use thyme essential oil. Oregano essential oil Carvacrol is an ingredient found in oregano essential oil. It has important therapeutic properties that further activate healing in the body when inhaled. Carvacrol in oregano oil has been found to help heal gastric ulcers and reduce inflammation. To treat fungal infections on your skin, add one drop of oregano essential oil per teaspoon of a carrier oil such as olive or coconut oil. Apply the mixture to the affected area. You can also diffuse oregano oil in the air to help clear sinus infections. You shouldn't ingest oregano essential oil or use undiluted essential oil on the skin. You may also be able to eradicate bacteria in the home with a homemade cleaning agent made of: oregano essential oil vinegar water lemon The bottom line Be sure to discuss your interest in natural antibiotics with your healthcare professional. They can help you explore your options and help you weigh the potential benefits and risks of each regimen. You shouldn't take antibiotics unless absolutely necessary. Taking antibiotics for the sake of taking antibiotics can lead your body to build up a resistance to the medication. You can learn ways to help prevent antibiotic resistance here.
