10 Oldest Languages In The World
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Language is one of humanity's oldest and most powerful tools, shaping civilizations, preserving cultures, and connecting generations. While thousands of languages have emerged and evolved over millennia, a few have withstood the test of time, remaining in use—either in daily life, liturgy, or scholarly circles—since ancient eras. https://zeenews.india.com/photos/world/10-oldest-languages-in-the-world-2905343 Updated:May 23, 2025, 07:13 PM IST
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These languages offer a fascinating glimpse into our collective past, showcasing the richness of human expression across centuries. In this article, we explore 10 of the oldest languages in the world, tracing their origins, historical significance, and continued relevance today. Tamil
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One of the oldest classical languages with origins dating back over 2000 years. Sanskrit
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Ancient Indo- European language, considered the language of classical Indian literature and Hindu scriptures. Hebrew
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Ancient Semitic language, sacred in Judaism, with origins dating back over 3000 years. Aramaic
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Semitic language, used in ancient Mesopotamia and spoken by Jesus Christ. Greek
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Ancient language with roots dating back to the 3rd millennium BCE, know for its rich literature. Chinese
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Ancient language family with written records dating back over 3000 years. Egyptian
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Ancient language of Egypt, with hieroglyphic inscriptions dating back to around 3200 BCE. Farsi
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While not the earliest known language in the Indo- Iranian language family, Farsi is the longest surviving spoken language of the Iranian family of languages almost 522 BC. Latin
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Classical language of the Roman empire, influencing many European languages. Italian
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It is quite challenging to determine whether this is one of the oldest languages in the world or if it is now extinct. It's possible that the language originated around 75 BCE, or even earlier—perhaps during the time of the Roman Republic, which was established in 509 BCE. Modern Italian is a direct descendant of Latin.
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The Hindu
4 days ago
- The Hindu
Circadian rhythms: how your body's internal clock regulates your health
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This behaviour continued despite the plant being kept in the dark, and was the first demonstration that the behaviour of leaves could continue, independent of light input. The molecules that control circadian rhythms were discovered in the 1960s through Ronald J. Konopka's elegant work with Seymour Benzer. He discovered the period or per gene, whose variants either shortened, lengthened or abrogated the 24-hour circadian rhythm of the fruit fly, Drosophila. This showed that the period gene was a component of the 24-hour clock, and not its output. In the 1980s and 1990s, Jeffrey Hall, Michael Rosbash, and Michael Young built on Konopka's work identifying: (i) the cycling expression of the period gene that was entrained by light, (ii) light-sensitive genes like timeless and cryptochromes, that act along with the period and (iii) feedback regulation that led to the cycling of the period protein. This pioneering research laid the foundations of understanding how the central 24-hour circadian clock operated in the fruit fly brain. Their work was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology (Medicine) in 2017. Joseph Takahashi's work in mice showed that central clock genes in this organism were similar to those identified in fruit flies, and these genes showed similar light-dependent feedback regulation. Such experiments revealed the existence of an evolutionarily conserved ancient mechanism to tie light input from the natural rotation of the earth to cycling molecules in the brain. How do circadian rhythms work? A 'master' clock called the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is present in the brain and consists of both neurons and supporting glial cells. This master clock drives several peripheral clocks in the heart, liver, spleen, skin, skeletal muscles, lungs, gastrointestinal tract, etc. The SCN integrates several sensory inputs called zeitgebers which mean 'time givers'. Zeitgebers for the circadian clock include light, food, noise, stress, social environment and temperature. Among these, light is the strongest zeitgeber. The process of synchronisation of the circadian clock in response to external cues is called 'entrainment'. Light is sensed by the photosensitive retinal ganglion cells and transmits information to the SCN, which in turn synchronises the peripheral clocks of the body. Exposure to light at dawn advances and entrains the clock and at dusk delays the clock. This entrainment releases hormones, such as cortisol to help us wake up and stay alert (activity rhythm) and suppresses melatonin, the hormone that assists sleep and is sometimes used as a sleep aid to help with jet lag. Aside from these 'activity rhythms', these released molecules control feeding, blood pressure and body temperature. The clock's impact on wellness The circadian rhythm sets up physiological rhythms with consequences on wellness. For instance, in the afternoon our reaction times are the fastest. By late evening, cardiovascular strength, blood pressure and body temperature are at their peak. As the sun sets and it becomes dark outside, the pineal gland in the brain releases melatonin. Watching television or working on electronic devices during this time, exposes us to blue light from screens, which has similar effects as the sunlight during the day. This blue light interferes with the action of melatonin and delays not only the onset of sleep, but also disrupts our circadian rhythm. Many other factors can also disrupt the circadian rhythm. The most common ones include traveling across time zones, shift work, age, medications, food intake and its timing, and neurological disorders. For healthy individuals, exposure in the morning to sunlight outdoors provides the strongest light input to reset and entrain the circadian clock. Food timings Food is another zeitgeber that impacts circadian rhythms, eventually controlling metabolism. However, controlling the quality and size of our meals alone is insufficient; the timing of meals is equally important for most living organisms. Researchers have shown that fruit flies fed at the wrong time laid fewer eggs. Mice fed during their 'rest period', were more prone to diabetes and obesity and showed cognitive impairment. Similarly, in humans, the mistiming of food can affect health. The timing of our meals directly affects the secondary clocks in organs such as the liver, pancreas and gastrointestinal tract. The genes that control the secondary clocks show rhythmic expressions, meaning the levels of proteins they produce also rise and fall in a 24-hour cycle. Genes linked to sugar (glucose), protein and fat metabolism also show stereotypical oscillations in synchrony with circadian rhythms. Even short delays in mealtimes can alter the expression of some genes that provide feedback to circadian rhythms. Two hormones are key to regulating our appetite: ghrelin and leptin. Ghrelin levels increase during hunger and fall with food intake, while leptin has the opposite effect– it is low when we are hungry, and surges when we feel full, reducing food intake. Thus, ghrelin levels peak and leptin levels are low just before our regular mealtimes. Disruptions in circadian rhythms, typically due to shift-work or sleep deprivation, also perturb the rhythmic release of ghrelin. Food types and meal timings affect circadian activity and physiological rhythms. Morning fasting affects the metabolism of subsequent meals and affects physical activity and nocturnal feeding. High fat and alcohol consumption disrupt circadian rhythms. Glucose metabolism is directly related to sleep patterns. Shorter sleep durations or disrupted sleep cause a spike in fasting blood glucose and reduce insulin sensitivity. The response of tissues to insulin (sensitivity) is critical to maintaining blood glucose levels. Lack of sufficient sleep and disrupted circadian rhythms can lead to poor regulation of food intake, as well as conditions such as diabetes and weight gain. The link to exercise Exercise is not as strong a zeitgeber as light, but, like food, it is a non-photic zeitgeber, and can potentially delay or advance circadian rhythms. Thus, exercise is an additional input to reset disrupted rhythms. Apart from the mode and intensity of exercise, its timing has an equally beneficial effect on the circadian rhythm through the modulation of clock genes. A study has shown that 45 minutes of aerobic exercise in the evening, as opposed to the morning helps reduce blood pressure in people with hypertension. Another study has shown that evening walks are better at reducing low-density lipoprotein, also known as the 'bad cholesterol', and fibrinogen – elevated levels of which can clot blood, creating blockages in blood vessels. Overall, the mode and timing of exercise helps alleviate the risk of cardiovascular diseases. A combination of exercise and its timing can help maintain a good circadian rhythm, which benefits health. Medication timings Circadian rhythm also affects the metabolism of drugs in the liver, thus medications are ingested along with our meals or at bedtime. The time of the day also determines how vulnerable we are to infections and how well we respond to vaccines. In other words, our immune responses also oscillate with circadian rhythms. Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the leading causes of death across the world. A mainstay of delaying CVD is treating elevated cholesterol through statins, a class of cholesterol-reducing drugs. Statins are usually prescribed to be taken in the evening for two main reasons. First, cholesterol biosynthesis in the liver peaks during the night controlled by the peripheral liver circadian clock. Second, most statins have a short half-life. This means half of the drug is eliminated from the bloodstream within a few hours. Taking statins in the evening thus synchronises the effectiveness of the drug during peak periods of cholesterol biosynthesis. Chronotype, sleep in teenagers and school/work timings We spend around a third of the day sleeping. Sleep is essential for several processes such as tissue growth, repair and regeneration, elimination of metabolic waste products from the central nervous system etc. It is not just the duration: the time of day that a person sleeps is also important for health. Whether in adults or in children, timely and adequate sleep is essential for a healthy body and mind. While adults need 7-8 hours of sleep, adolescents require more sleep, approximately 8-10 hours. An undisturbed circadian rhythm is important to promote wakefulness and alertness during the day and rest through sleep during the night. However, several global studies report shorter durations or disturbed sleep among adolescents. Chronotype, a person's natural inclination with regard to the time of day when they prefer to sleep or when they are most alert or energetic, is important to account for, in how societies function. 'Larks' naturally wake up early and are active in the morning while 'owls' wake up later, or are active during the later part of the day. Likewise, teenagers normally experience a delayed onset of sleep due to an approximately two-hour shift in their circadian rhythms. This shift is driven by hormonal changes during their growing years. Thus, teenagers sleep late but have to wake up early, around 6 a.m. or 7 a.m., as schools often begin early in the morning. This delayed sleep phase leaves teenagers with fewer hours to sleep and causes major disturbances to their circadian rhythms. This disruption is often exacerbated by access to social stimulation from the internet/messaging, blue light from electronic devices and poor sleep hygiene. Such disturbances lead to difficulties in waking up, daytime sleepiness, an inability to stay attentive, absenteeism, poor school performance etc. It may also lead to anxiety and depression and can worsen the mental health of teenagers. Researchers and experts hence recommend school timings be rescheduled so that classes start later for adolescents in synchrony with their natural circadian rhythms. This will ensure they do not compromise on their sleep duration and quality, thereby promoting good mental and physical health. There is increasing evidence that shows that a delay in school start timings helps teenagers have better sleep quality and better educational outcomes. Taking adult chronotypes into consideration in a work environment can also help individuals be both productive and healthy. To sum up, physiology, a central pillar of human health, is driven by the master circadian clock in the brain that acts on, and via, several peripheral clocks. The clock is entrained primarily by light, but also by meal timings and exercise to maintain normal circadian rhythms. Additionally, the output of the clock in concert with a variety of zeitgebers provides feedback to maintain healthy rhythms. These rhythms likely differ slightly depending on the chronotype of the individual. Disruption of rhythms has been shown to have a variety of detrimental effects leading to sleep disruptions, diabetes, obesity and poor mental health. (Rohini Karandikar is a science communicator, educator, and facilitator. She currently works as a consultant with the TNQ Foundation. Sandhya P. 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The Print
4 days ago
- The Print
Sanskrit didn't always drive innovation in ancient India. There are two reasons
Mathematics and geometry in the Indian subcontinent began with the Harappans, who deployed them extensively in urban planning, construction, and hydraulic engineering. Despite various attempts , the Harappan script remains undeciphered. The earliest recorded Indian mathematics, then, comes from the Vedas. Historian David Pingree studied them in his Jyotiḥśāstra: Astral and Mathematical Literature. Vedic priests constructed elaborate altars of mud-brick, in the shape of hawks, herons, chariots and so on. In order to maintain consistent designs, they used geometrical formulae, recorded in the Sulbasutras , appendices of the Yajur Veda dating to c. 500 BCE. From this early period, Indians developed a fascination with trigonometry, including what came to be known as the Pythagorean theorem. On the strength of these claims, various NGOs and politicians have called for Sanskrit learning to be a part of school curricula. But few seem aware of the actual history of science in Sanskrit. As with every scientific tradition across the world, the Sanskritic approach made extraordinary achievements—but it also had severe limitations that took centuries to overcome. To understand this, let's look specifically at the science of astronomy. Earlier this month, Delhi Chief Minister Rekha Gupta declared that Sanskrit, ancient India's premier language of power and literature, is 'scientific' and 'the most computer-friendly language', according to 'NASA scientists'. This claim has been doing the rounds for over a decade, sometimes accompanied by pseudoscientific declarations of the achievements of ancient Indians—think flying saucers, cloning, nuclear weapons, and whatnot. In the centuries after, the trajectory of Indian mathematics is somewhat unclear. Around the 4th century BCE, Jains were developing an expansive cosmology, with vast distances and eras of time. Mathematician George Gheverghese Joseph, in The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics, provides some examples. 'A rajju is the distance traveled by a god in six months if he covers 1,00,000 yojanas (a million kilometres) in each blink of his eyes; a palya is the time it will take to empty a cubic vessel of side one yojana filled with the wool of newborn lambs if one strand is removed every century.' This led Jains to develop advanced concepts of infinity: infinite in one or two directions, in area, in time, in space. Europeans, writes Joseph, only came round to this idea in the late 1800s. By the turn of the first millennium CE, the subcontinent's connections to global trade grew denser — a phenomenon we've examined many times in Thinking Medieval. As Indian textiles, spices, animals and other exotica went to the Mediterranean, mathematical and astronomical ideas flowed in the other direction. Sanskrit learning branched out from liturgy into new disciplines, like politics and aesthetics; the earliest Puranas were also compiled, addressing topics of mythology, ritual, history, and cosmology. Sanskrit scientific writings took on a heterogeneous character. Puranic authors insisted that the Earth was a flat disc surrounded by oceans, supported by elephants, turtles and serpents; the planets, stars, Sun and Moon were held to revolve in wheels above. But another set of authors, composing treatises called Siddhantas, absorbed Mediterranean conceptions such as a spherical Earth and elliptical orbits. However, the basis for calculations and geometry was rooted in Indian techniques. This rich exchange is visible in the work of then 23-year-old prodigy Aryabhata in his Aryabhatiya, completed in 499 CE. According to Joseph, the Aryabhatiya introduces the sine and versine (1-cosine) functions, as well as methods for solving quadratic equations. Wielding these techniques, Aryabhata made extremely accurate calculations of the value of pi, of longitude and the position of planets over time. Also read: Medieval Kashmir was confidently multicultural. And dazzled the world with art and ideas Stagnation and innovation Over the next centuries, Sanskrit writers further developed their knowledge of trigonometry, calendrical calculations, and arithmetic. However, there were two major challenges. As Sanskrit was seen as the language of divinity, the main current of Sanskrit knowledge tended to be conservative, resistant to new developments. And rather than developing ideas based on observations, there was a tendency to emphasise theory over observation and experimentation. Arabs, in the 8th and 9th centuries CE, were able to break new ground in optics, hydraulics, and astronomy, both by translating Indian ideas and verifying claims with observations. In India, meanwhile, as late as the 12th century, Siddhanta writers such as Bhaskara II were still rejecting Puranic notions that eclipses were caused by the demon Rahu. Prof Pingree, in his 1978 paper 'Indian Astronomy', argues that medieval Indian astronomers often miscalculated eclipses, and found that despite the confident statements of some Sanskrit treatises, their tables of planetary and star positions could contain errors. There are also precious few descriptions of measuring equipment, such as astrolabes. How could both innovation and stagnation, dogma and genius, coexist in the same literary tradition? Firstly, to be 'learned' by medieval standards was to have an encyclopaedic command of texts, wielding rhetorical, linguistic and logical tools to defend a metaphysical viewpoint taught by one's guru. Mathematical truths were developed out of curiosity, or for better calculations. But the idea of scientific innovation for its own sake, to profitably harness natural principles, did not exist as it does today. The bigger limiting factor on Sanskrit was that it required years of specialised study. This could only happen at elite institutions with endowments of food and capital, such as Brahmin Agraharam settlements or Buddhist mahaviharas. Needless to say, these institutions tended to be open only to elite men, even if they came from distant countries. Though many male-authored Sanskrit texts pay lip service to female and 'lower' caste devotees, barely a handful of actual texts authored by these groups survive across Sanskrit's millennia-long history. They made their own advancements, though poorly recorded. Even as the Sanskrit astronomical tradition floundered, as attested by Arab travellers in the 12th century CE, the star-charts of illiterate South Indian seafarers were the most accurate in the world. Also read: A Sanskrit Bible story was written in Ayodhya. The patron was a Lodi, the poet a Kshatriya New ideas For centuries, Indian mathematics had led the world. But by the 1200s and 1300s, Indian writings seem to have withdrawn from the world stage as advanced Persianate astronomical methods — often based on Indian maths — took over. To be clear, there were still innovations, especially in Kerala, where the Brahmin school of Madhava made substantial innovations in circular and trigonometric functions. Bigger changes, though, came only gradually: the Sanskrit tradition, unfortunately, had become more interested in preserving its prestige and age-old conventions, and only rarely engaged with new, 'alien' (and hence less prestigious) ideas. As Sanskritist Christopher Minkowski writes in 'Astronomers and their Reasons: Working Paper on Jyōtiḥśāstra', members of this school, by the 16th century, were calling for the increased use of observations to verify their methods. Somewhat later, and apparently independently, a Brahmin at the court of Shah Jahan began to translate Persian astronomical treatises into Sanskrit. This was controversial; 17th-century Benares was alight with debates as to whether observation-based Muslim astronomy was acceptable at all. But change was in the air. By 1730, the astronomer-king Sawai Jai Singh II tacitly accepted the importance of observation, setting up large observatories such as the Jantar Mantar in Jaipur. Attempts to shake up the Sanskritic knowledge system continued under British administrators. In his chapter 'The Pandit as Public Intellectual: The Controversy over Virodha or Inconsistency in the Astronomical Sciences', part of the edited volume The Pandit: Traditional Scholarship in India, Minkowski looks at Lancelot Wilkinson, British Political Agent at the court of Bhopal. Wilkinson commissioned a Brahmin to write a Marathi text on the modern, Copernican system of astronomy. Within two years, it attracted multiple critiques and commentaries from Brahmins bashing it in Marathi, Hindi, English and Sanskrit. The text's author was forced to retract his assertions. But the floodgates were opened: one of Wilkinson's proteges, writes Minkowski, went on to teach both Indian and European astronomy at the Benares Sanskrit college, providing a model of the 'accommodation of science and scientific rationality which still enabled holding on to the context of traditional Sanskrit learning.' Today, Sanskrit is no longer just a language: it has become a stand-in for something bigger, the idea of a perfect, just, advanced ancient Indian society that could be resurrected if only we all spoke it again. Indeed, NGOs such as Samskrita Bharati — at whose event CM Gupta spoke earlier this month — claim that Sanskrit was the mother tongue of all Indians irrespective of caste, class, and religion. (Anthropologist Adi Hastings conducted a detailed study of this organisation in 2008). Since the 1900s, led by ideologues like Dayanand Saraswati, Sanskrit texts like the Vedas have come to be seen as infallible, as already containing all scientific knowledge. Praising Sanskrit orthodoxy and buzzwords seems to have replaced Independent India's proud traditions of serious, independent scientific research open to scholars of all backgrounds. But the fact is that languages are products of history: they are not divine or perfect, but have their brilliances and their flaws. Insisting on the superiority of a single language closes us off from learning from the others: in my view, a mistake our ancestors have already made. The language of science and progress is not English, or Persian, or Greek, or Latin. Nor is it Sanskrit. It is mathematics, it is reason, it is evidence: the common heritage of all humanity. Anirudh Kanisetti is a public historian. He is the author of 'Lords of Earth and Sea: A History of the Chola Empire' and the award-winning 'Lords of the Deccan'. He hosts the Echoes of India and Yuddha podcasts. He tweets @AKanisetti and is on Instagram @anirbuddha. This article is a part of the 'Thinking Medieval' series that takes a deep dive into India's medieval culture, politics, and history. (Edited by Theres Sudeep)
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India.com
5 days ago
- India.com
Meet 10 Top Celebs Who Chose Bollywood Over Engineering: Kartik Aaryan, Kriti Sanon To Vicky Kaushal, Taapsee Pannu, Avinash Tiwary
photoDetails english 2906951 Updated:May 28, 2025, 08:16 AM IST Top 10 stars who chose Bollywood over Engineering. 1 / 11 Not many are aware of the fact that some of our top stars today are highly qualified engineers. Yes! However, to follow their inner calling and passion, these celebs left their academic inclination and chose acting as a profession. From Kartik Aaryan, Kriti Sanon to Taapsee Pannu, R Madhavan - the list is long. Take a look at top 10 stars who chose Bollywood over Engineering. Ameesha Patel 2 / 11 Ameesha Patel studied at Cathedral and John Connon School in Mumbai before heading to Tufts University in Boston in the United States to study bio-genetic engineering, which she studied for two years, before eventually switching her major to economics. Riteish Deshmukh 3 / 11 Riteish Deshmukh studied at GD Somani Memorial School and holds an architectural engineering degree from Kamla Raheja College of Architecture, Mumbai. He later practiced for a year with an overseas architectural firm and continued designing since his return to India. Sushant Singh Rajput 4 / 11 The late Bollywood top star Sushant Singh Rajput began his acting career after dropping out of his engineering course at the Delhi College of Engineering and entering the theatre industry in Mumbai. He was deeply interested in astrophysics and won the National Olympiad in Physics. He secured admission in the Delhi College of Engineering (later renamed Delhi Technological University) to pursue a Bachelor of Engineering degree in mechanical engineering. He wanted to become an astronaut and later an air force pilot. R Madhavan 5 / 11 Madhavan did his schooling from DBMS English School Jamshedpur. In 1988, he gained a scholarship to represent India as a cultural ambassador from Rajaram College, Kolhapur and spent a year in Stettler, Alberta, Canada. He returned to Kolhapur and completed his education, graduating with a BSc in Electronics. Sonu Sood 6 / 11 The celebrated actor who is known for his humanitarian works as well, especially post COVID-19 outbreak, holds an Engineering degree in Electronics from Yeshwantrao Chavan College of Engineering, Nagpur. Kartik Aaryan 7 / 11 Kartik Aaryan stayed dedicated to balancing his acting endeavours with studies. Hailing from a family of medical professionals, he completed his schooling in Gwalior, followed his passion for Science, and pursued an engineering degree in biotechnology from Navi Mumbai. Simultaneously, he also nurtured his interest in acting, and later, he enrolled in an acting course. Taapsee Pannu 8 / 11 After graduating in Computer Science Engineering from Guru Tegh Bahadur Institute of Technology in New Delhi, Taapsee Pannu worked as a Software Engineer. She stepped into the entertainment industry by auditioning for Channel V. It was in 2010 when Taapsee made her Telugu debut with Jhummandi Naadam. Kriti Sanon 9 / 11 Beyond pursuing engineering, Kriti Sanon also graduated with a Bachelor of Technology Degree in Electronics and Telecommunication from Jaypee Institute of Information and Technology, Noida. Later, she ventured into films and registered a striking Bollywood debut with Heropanti. Avinash Tiwary 10 / 11 Avinash Tiwary completed school from the D.P.Y.A High School and Engineering in Mumbai. To step into the acting space, he stopped pursuing engineering in the fourth semester and joined the theater. Avinash joined Barry John's acting studio, and later, he went on to the New York Film Academy to dive deep into the acting space. And truly, his choice of picking acting over engineering is working out to be well for him - with films and series like Laila Majnu, Madgaon Express, The Mehta Boys, and the upcoming Ginny Wedss Sunny 2! Vicky Kaushal 11 / 11 From humble beginnings to becoming a renowned Bollywood actor, Vicky Kaushal has come a long way. Initially, he pursued a degree in engineering at Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Technology in Mumbai. The actor holds a heavy engineering degree in Electronics and Telecommunications. As his heart lay in Bollywood, he took his first step in the industry as an Assistant Director, and later, he made a stellar debut with the 2015 release, Masaan.
