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About 700m years ago, the Earth froze over entirely – now we may know why

About 700m years ago, the Earth froze over entirely – now we may know why

The Guardian5 days ago
It's hard to believe, but about 700m years ago it's thought that our planet completely froze over with little to no liquid ocean or lakes exposed to the atmosphere, even in the tropics. But what tipped Earth's climate into 'Snowball Earth' state? A new study suggests a cold climate and massive volcanic eruptions set the scene.
The Franklin eruptions – about 720m years ago – spewed out vast amounts of fresh rock, stretching from what is now Alaska, through northern Canada to Greenland. Similarly large eruptions have happened at other times, but this one happened to coincide with an already cold climate. And combined with a lack of plants (they hadn't evolved yet) these eruptions exposed a huge carpet of fresh rock to intense weathering.
Chemical reactions associated with weathering remove carbon dioxide from the air. By modelling the climate impact, researchers have shown that rapid erosion over such a large area could have pulled down enough carbon dioxide to tip Earth into a snowball state. The findings, which are published in the Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets, also show that similar-sized volcanic eruptions at other times in Earth's history failed to generate snowball conditions because they occurred when the background climate was hotter, or at times when vegetation cover slowed the rate of erosion.
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‘Fantastic Four: First Steps' scores Marvel's first $100 million box office opening of 2025
‘Fantastic Four: First Steps' scores Marvel's first $100 million box office opening of 2025

The Independent

time14 hours ago

  • The Independent

‘Fantastic Four: First Steps' scores Marvel's first $100 million box office opening of 2025

Marvel's first family has finally found box office gold. 'The Fantastic Four: First Steps,' the first film about the superheroes made under the guidance of Kevin Feige and the Walt Disney Co., earned $118 million in its first weekend in 4,125 North American theaters, according to studio estimates Sunday. That makes it the fourth biggest opening of the year, behind 'A Minecraft Movie,' 'Lilo & Stitch' and 'Superman,' and the biggest Marvel opening since 'Deadpool & Wolverine' grossed $211 million out of the gate last summer. Internationally, 'Fantastic Four' made $100 million from 52 territories, adding up to a $218 million worldwide debut. The numbers were within the range the studio was expecting. The film arrived in the wake of another big superhero reboot, James Gunn's 'Superman,' which opened three weekends ago and has already crossed $500 million globally. That film, from the other main player in comic book films, DC Studios, took second place with $24.9 million domestically. 'First Steps' is the latest attempt at bringing the superhuman family to the big screen, following lackluster performances for other versions. The film, based on the original Marvel comics, is set during the 1960s in a retro-futuristic world led by the Fantastic Four, a family of astronauts-turned-superhuman from exposure to cosmic rays during a space mission. The family is made up of Reed Richards (Pedro Pascal), who can stretch his body to incredible lengths; Sue Storm (Vanessa Kirby), who can render herself invisible; Johnny Storm (Joseph Quinn), who transforms into a fiery human torch; and Ben Grimm (Ebon Moss-Bachrach), who possesses tremendous superhuman strength with his stone-like flesh. The movie takes place four years after the family gained powers, during which Reed's inventions have transformed technology, and Sue's diplomacy has led to global peace. Both audiences and critics responded positively to the film, which currently has an 88% on Rotten Tomatoes and promising exit poll responses from opening weekend ticket buyers. An estimated 46% of audiences chose to see it on premium screens, including IMAX and other large formats. The once towering Marvel is working to rebuild audience enthusiasm for its films and characters. Its two previous offerings this year did not reach the cosmic box office heights of 'Deadpool & Wolverine," which made over $1.3 billion, or those of the 'Avengers'-era. But critically, the films have been on an upswing since the poorly reviewed 'Captain America: Brave New World,' which ultimately grossed $415 million worldwide. ' Thunderbolts," which jumpstarted the summer movie season, was better received critically but financially is capping out at just over $382 million globally. Like Deadpool and Wolverine, the Fantastic Four characters had been under the banner of 20th Century Fox for years. The studio produced two critically loathed, but decently profitable attempts in the mid-2000s with future Captain America Chris Evans as the Human Torch. In 2015, it tried again (unsuccessfully) with Michael B. Jordan and Miles Teller. They got another chance after Disney's $71 billion acquisition of Fox's entertainment assets in 2019. Top 10 movies by domestic box office With final domestic figures being released Monday, this list factors in the estimated ticket sales for Friday through Sunday at U.S. and Canadian theaters, according to Comscore: 1. 'The Fantastic Four: First Steps,' $118 million. 2. 'Superman,' $24.9 million. 3. 'Jurassic World Rebirth,' $13 million. 4. 'F1: The Movie,' $6.2 million. 5. 'Smurfs,' $5.4 million. 6. 'I Know What You Did Last Summer,' $5.1 million. 7. 'How to Train Your Dragon,' $2.8 million. 8. 'Eddington,' $1.7 million. 9. 'Saiyaara,' $1.3 million. 10. 'Oh, Hi!,' $1.1 million.

This fuzzy animal friend may be the key to treating schizophrenia
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Turbulence is increasing. Here's how the aviation industry is trying to smooth things out
Turbulence is increasing. Here's how the aviation industry is trying to smooth things out

BBC News

timea day ago

  • BBC News

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Climate change is creating stronger turbulence. Aircraft designers hope innovative new techniques will reduce its effects. "We saw blood on the ceiling… It was just complete havoc." This was one passenger's description of the scene after a Singapore Airlines flight was hit by severe turbulence while passing over the south of Myanmar in 2024. A lot of people were on the floor." Early this spring, a United Airlines Boeing 787 also hit severe turbulence while cruising above the Philippines. A flight attendant was thrown against the ceiling, resulting in a concussion and a broken arm. Turbulence incidents like these are increasing as a result of human-caused climate change. Severe clear-air turbulence (Cat), meaning very rough air that is invisible to satellites, radar and the human eye, has increased 55% since 1979 – when reliable meteorological records began, according to research by Paul Williams, professor of atmospheric science at the University of Reading. 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The flaplets adjust their angle slightly in order to counteract changes in airflow based on pressure readings taken immediately in front of them on the wing's leading edge. It helps to stabilise the plane, a bit like how birds use tiny adjustments of their feathers while flying. The company says its technology can reduce turbulence loads felt by passengers by more than 80%. So far it has only tested the technology on small aircraft – though CEO Andras Galffy, himself an aerobatics pilot, feels confident that it will scale to support far larger planes. "The common view is you can either avoid or accept turbulence and deal with it by buckling up and reinforcing the wing," he tells me. "But we say you don't need to accept it. You just need the right counter-signal. For light aircraft there was always this pain but even for commercial aviation it's getting more serious because turbulence is increasing." Flying directly through eddies, vortices and updrafts with minimal disturbance requires not only precision engineering but a lot of advanced mathematics and an analysis of fluid dynamics. (Air, like water, is a fluid). The picture will always be complicated because the fundamental nature of turbulence is that it is chaotic. Small perturbations, from how wind deflects off a building to the wake of another aircraft, can change the behaviour of currents in the air. It's hard for humans to comprehend, but it might be easier for AI. "Machine learning is very good at finding patterns within high dimensional data," says Ricardo Vinuesa, a researcher in fluid mechanics, engineering and AI at KTH Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm. "Turbulence might just be the perfect application for AI." In a recent experiment, Vinuesa and colleagues from the Barcelona Supercomputing Center and TU Delft tested an AI system that controlled "synthetic jets" of air on a simulated aircraft wing. The AI itself was trained using deep reinforcement learning, a process whereby the model learns using trial-and-error, a little like when a toddler learns to walk. "Rather than measuring upstream, we can use AI to create very accurate numerical simulations of what airflow is doing based on measurements taken directly at the wing," he says. "And where neural networks are usually considered black boxes, we use explainable AI, which allows us to determine which measurements are most important to the predictions generated by the model." Vinuesa and his colleagues are working with tech companies to develop the technology further. Last year, a team from Caltech and Nvidia deployed extreme turbulence inside a wind tunnel to test an AI-powered sensing and prediction system for drones with promising results. Researchers at Nasa's Langley Research Center tested a purpose-built microphone capable of detecting ultra-low infrasound frequencies created by whorls of clear-air turbulence up to 300 miles (480km) away. Another approach that has been in active development since at least 2010 involves the use of Light Detection and Ranging (Lidar) to create a 3D map of the air around a plane, much as self-driving cars create a point cloud of nearby objects and vehicles, in order to navigate their environment. A 2023 Chinese study proposed a "dual-wavelength" Lidar system, which they claim can observe light-to-moderate Cat between seven and 10km (4.3 to 6.2 miles) ahead of the aircraft. Unfortunately, the lower density of air molecules at high altitude means the instruments become too large, heavy and energy-hungry to be of use in existing commercial aircraft. The convergence of manufacturing, AI and new sensors could transform aviation in the second half of the 21st Century. But what happens today? Before take-off, pilots check weather briefings and study jet stream charts. They consult flight planning software and check forecasts such as the Graphical Turbulence Guidance (GTG) to which Paul Williams contributed. "About 20 years ago we could forecast around 60% of turbulence," he says, "today it's more like 75% and I suppose it's my career goal to push that number up and up." When I ask what holds back progress, Williams says it is access to turbulence data measured by aircraft. "Research scientists have to buy the data, and it's not cheap." More like this:• Aircraft turbulence is worsening with climate change• The aircraft that may fly like a flock of geese• How long-haul travel may change With advanced computation, AI and ever-more satellites, weather forecasting is improving, but there is a general lack of wind measurements above the Earth's surface. What we do know comes from around 1,300 weather balloon sites around the planet and the accelerometers on roughly 100,000 commercial flights that take to the skies each day. Turbulence Aware from the International Air Transport Association (IATA) anonymises and shares real-time turbulence data and is now used by airlines including Air France, EasyJet and Aer Lingus. For passengers, there are a growing number of apps that provide access to data seen only by pilots and dispatchers up to now, one of which is Turbli. "I use Turbli," says Williams. "I've found it to be reasonably accurate given the proviso that they don't know your exact route so can't be 100% accurate. But it's a little like a hypochondriac googling their symptoms," he adds. "I'm not sure it always helps." -- For more science, technology, environment and health stories from the BBC, follow us on Facebook and Instagram.

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