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History Today: When Oppenheimer tested the first atomic bomb
World's first atomic bomb was detonated in New Mexico on July 16, 1945. Image Courtesy: nps.gov
The world entered the nuclear age on July 16, 1945, with the detonation of the first atomic bomb, which was tested in the New Mexico desert. Code-named Trinity, it was part of the Manhattan Project, a massive scientific and military effort by the United States to develop nuclear weapons during World War II.
If you are a history geek who loves to learn about important events from the past, Firstpost Explainers' ongoing series, History Today, will be your one-stop destination to explore key events.
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On this day in 1951, JD Salinger's iconic novel, The Catcher in the Rye, was published. The book introduced the world to the unforgettable teenage protagonist, Holden Caulfield.
Here is all that took place on this day across the world.
The first atomic bomb exploded
One of most important events of the 20th Century took place on July 16, 1945. The first atomic bomb was successfully tested by the United States in Alamogordo, New Mexico. And with this, the world entered the nuclear age.
The bomb, nicknamed 'The Gadget,' used plutonium-239 and was detonated at 5:29 am. The explosion created a blinding flash, a fireball that reached temperatures hotter than the surface of the sun and a mushroom cloud that rose over seven miles (11 kilometres) into the sky. It produced an energy equivalent of about 21 kilotons of TNT.
A man sits next to The Gadget, the nuclear device created by scientists to test the world's atomic bomb, at the Trinity Site in Alamogordo, New Mexico. Wikimedia Commons
Led by physicist J Robert Oppenheimer, the Manhattan Project brought together some of the greatest scientific minds of the time, including Enrico Fermi, Richard Feynman and Niels Bohr. The successful test confirmed that nuclear fission could be weaponised, changing the course of history.
After witnessing the explosion, Oppenheimer famously quoted the Bhagavad Gita, 'Now I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds.'
Just three weeks later, the US dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima on August 6 and Nagasaki on August 9, leading to Japan's surrender and the end of World War II. The Trinity test not only marked the dawn of nuclear warfare but also triggered decades of arms races, Cold War tensions and ethical debates about the use of such destructive technology.
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Catcher in the Rye published
JD Salinger's only full-length novel, The Catcher in the Rye, was published by Little, Brown and Company on this day in 1951. With the launch of the book, the world was introduced to the unforgettable teenage protagonist, Holden Caulfield.
Set in post-World War II America, the novel follows Holden over the course of three days in New York City after being expelled from prep school. Disillusioned by the 'phoniness' of the adult world and struggling with grief over the death of his younger brother, Holden narrates his journey in a raw, confessional tone that was both controversial and groundbreaking at the time.
JD Salinger's classic novel, which gave life to Holden Caulfield. File image/AP
While initial reviews were mixed, the book quickly gained popularity among young readers and became a bestseller. Its honest portrayal of teenage alienation, mental health, and rebellion struck a chord with postwar youth and sparked widespread debate.
Salinger, who became famously reclusive after the novel's publication, never allowed a film adaptation and published little afterward. Yet his lone novel became a literary icon and has sold over 65 million copies worldwide.
This Day, That Year
Chicago officially opened its Millennium Park on this day in 2004.
In 1979, Saddam Hussein became president of Iraq.
Apollo 11 lifted off from Nasa's John F Kennedy Space Center in Florida on this day in 1969.
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First Post
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History Today: When we lost APJ Abdul Kalam, the 'Missile Man of India'
On July 27, 2015, India lost a visionary and leader in APJ Abdul Kalam, the 'Missile Man,'who collapsed while delivering a lecture at IIM Shillong. He passed away at 83; a moment that united an entire nation in grief and gratitude for his scientific legacy and inspirational life read more Indian President APJ Abdul Kalam arrives to caste his ballot at a polling station in New Delhi, May 10, 2004. File Image/Reuters As part of Firstpost's History Today series, July 27 has witnessed pivotal moments — from the passing of India's beloved 'Missile Man' APJ Abdul Kalam in 2015, to acts of terror and peacemaking on the world stage, and deep racial conflict in America. APJ Abdul Kalam passes away On July 27, 2015, India lost one of its most beloved and respected figures — Dr. Avul Pakir Jainulabdeen Abdul Kalam, the 11th President of India and a pioneering aerospace scientist. Kalam collapsed while delivering a lecture at the Indian Institute of Management (IIM) Shillong. He was 83. His sudden demise marked the end of an era that transcended science, education, public service and spiritual thought. STORY CONTINUES BELOW THIS AD Born on October 15, 1931, in Rameswaram, Tamil Nadu, Kalam came from modest beginnings. His father was a boat owner and imam of a local mosque, and young Kalam helped supplement the family income by selling newspapers. Despite financial constraints, he showed an early curiosity for learning and was especially drawn to mathematics and physics. After completing his schooling in Ramanathapuram, Kalam went on to study physics at St. Joseph's College, Tiruchirappalli, and then aerospace engineering at the Madras Institute of Technology. He narrowly missed becoming a fighter pilot in the Indian Air Force — he was ranked 9th while only 8 slots were available — but fate had bigger plans for him. Kalam joined the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) in 1958 and then the Indian Space Research Organisation (Isro) in 1969. At ISRO, he was project director of India's first indigenous Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV-III), which successfully deployed the Rohini satellite in 1980 — a defining moment in India's space history. His contributions became even more prominent when he rejoined DRDO and spearheaded India's missile development programme under the Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP). This earned him the moniker 'Missile Man of India.' Notable missiles like Agni and Prithvi were developed under his leadership. Kalam played a pivotal role in India's 1998 nuclear tests at Pokhran-II. As the chief scientific adviser to the Prime Minister and the head of the DRDO at the time, he was instrumental in the coordination and execution of the tests. STORY CONTINUES BELOW THIS AD From left to right, Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee, Defence Minister George Fernandes, India's 'missile man' APJ Abdul Kalam and Atomic Energy chief R Chidambaram display the victory symbol during a visit to the Shakti 1 test site, where India tested nuclear device in Pokhran. File Image/AP The successful detonation marked India as a nuclear weapons state and significantly altered its global strategic posture. The Pokhran-II tests also cemented Kalam's status as a national hero. His ability to bridge scientific innovation with national policy was rare and essential at a time when India sought to assert itself globally. In 2002, Abdul Kalam was elected the 11th President of India with support across party lines. He was the first scientist and the first bachelor to occupy Rashtrapati Bhavan. During his tenure, Kalam brought a refreshing change to the ceremonial office, converting it into an active platform for outreach and youth engagement. He earned the sobriquet 'People's President' due to his simplicity, accessibility and dedication to citizens — especially students. Kalam made it a priority to meet with young people, listen to their aspirations, and encourage innovation and education. An Indian army officer (L) points towards the Line of Control (LoC) as Indian President APJ Abdul Kalam (2nd-L), Kashmir Chief Minister Mufti Mohammed Syed and V G. Patankar, chief of Indian army in Kashmir, look during their visit to the LoC in the Uri sector, 102 kms (63 miles) west of Srinagar, June 28, 2003. File Image/Reuters After his presidency, Kalam did not retire from public life. He became a visiting professor at multiple institutions including IIM Shillong, IIM Ahmedabad, and the Indian Institute of Science (IISc) Bangalore. STORY CONTINUES BELOW THIS AD He also authored several influential books such as Wings of Fire, India 2020, Ignited Minds, and My Journey — many of which became bestsellers and were translated into numerous languages. Kalam was a strong advocate for India's development through knowledge, science, and technological self-reliance. His vision of India as a developed nation by 2020, although not fully realised, continues to inspire developmental discourse. On July 27, 2015, while delivering a lecture titled 'Creating a Liveable Planet Earth' at IIM Shillong, Kalam collapsed at around 6:30 pm. He was rushed to Bethany Hospital, where he was pronounced dead from a sudden cardiac arrest. News of his death triggered an outpouring of grief across India and abroad. The Government of India declared a seven-day state mourning. His body was flown to his hometown of Rameswaram, where he was laid to rest with full state honours. Over 350,000 people attended his funeral, including political leaders, scientists and common citizens. Kalam's impact on India — and indeed, the world — transcended his technical achievements. He symbolised the power of education, the importance of hard work, and the potential of a visionary mind. STORY CONTINUES BELOW THIS AD Among his numerous accolades are the Bharat Ratna (India's highest civilian honour), the Padma Bhushan, and the Padma Vibhushan. He received honorary doctorates from more than 40 universities worldwide. His birthday, October 15, is now observed as World Students' Day in many institutions, and India's DRDO has named its missile complex in Hyderabad the 'Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam Missile Complex.' His house in Rameswaram was converted into the Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam National Memorial by the Defence Research and Development Organisation and inaugurated in 2017. Globally, he was remembered as a symbol of peace and development. Tibetan spiritual leader the Dalai Lama is felicitated by former Indian president APJ Abdul Kalam during celebration of his 74th birthday in New Delhi, July 6, 2009. File Image/Reuters Former UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon called him a 'great statesman and visionary,' while Nasa scientists lauded his commitment to science diplomacy. His quotes like — 'Dream, dream, dream. Dreams transform into thoughts and thoughts result in action' — are widely circulated in classrooms and textbooks. In an age of growing cynicism and division, Kalam remains a rare unifying figure. He was admired across the ideological spectrum — by conservatives, liberals, nationalists, and progressives alike. STORY CONTINUES BELOW THIS AD Kalam once said, 'If you want to shine like a sun, first burn like a sun.' Olympic terror: Centennial Park bombing On July 27, 1996, a pipe bomb exploded at Centennial Olympic Park in Atlanta during a free concert, killing 44-year-old Alice Hawthorne, causing the death of Turkish cameraman Melih Uzunyol (via heart attack), and injuring 111 others. Investigators inspecting the scene at Centennial Olympic Park in Atlanta, Georgia, where a pipe bomb exploded on July 27, 1996, disrupting the Summer Olympic Games. File Image/AP The bomber — Eric Robert Rudolph, a white supremacist extremist — later admitted responsibility, linking the act to opposition against abortion and globalism. He was captured in 2003 and sentenced to life imprisonment in 2005. Security guard Richard Jewell was initially hailed a hero, then wrongfully accused — a saga prompting FBI reforms and legal action by Jewell. The event shifted Olympic security, highlighting vulnerabilities in mass gatherings and civilian safety protocols. Armistice ends Korean War After nearly three years of intense conflict beginning June 25, 1950, the Korean War armistice was signed at Panmunjom on July 27, 1953. US, North Korean, and Chinese forces convened, reaching a ceasefire effective at 10:00 am (signing) and formal cessation by 10:00 pm that night. UN delegate Lieut. Gen. William K. Harrison, Jr. (seated left), and Korean People's Army and Chinese People's Volunteers delegate Gen. Nam Il (seated right) signing the Korean War armistice agreement at P'anmunjŏm, Korea, July 27, 1953. Image/US Department of Defense The accord established the Demilitarised Zone (DMZ) near the 38th parallel and highlighted prisoner repatriation via a Neutral Nations Commission. Although the armistice halted active conflict, no formal peace treaty was signed — leaving North and South Korea technically at war. The DMZ has remained one of the world's most fortified and enduring cold war legacies. STORY CONTINUES BELOW THIS AD Chicago race riot of 1919 ignites On July 27, 1919, racial tensions in Chicago erupted when 17-year-old Eugene Williams, an African-American, was struck and drowned after crossing an informal race line on Lake Michigan's South Side beach. White beach-goers had stoned him, triggering outrage. Over the following week, violence rocked Chicago — the dead included 38 (23 Black, 15 white), and more than 537 were injured. Image Credit: Chicago History Museum Property damage exceeded 1,000 homes, and Black residents retaliated following a lack of police protection. It became one of the bloodiest episodes of the Red Summer of 1919, illustrating systemic racism, segregation and the upheaval driven by the Great Migration — urban Black veterans resisting entrenched oppression. Also Watch: With inputs from agencies
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First Post
3 days ago
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History Today: When Louise Brown's birth marked the dawn of IVF
On July 25, 1978, Louise Joy Brown became the world's first IVF-baby — ushering in a new era of reproductive medicine and giving hope to millions. On this day in 2007, Pratibha Patil became India's first woman president, Mata Hari's espionage trial ends in 1917, and Svetlana Savitskaya made the first female spacewalk in 1984 read more The world's first 'test tube baby' Britain's Louise Brown, faces the media holding 13 week old twins Antonia and Henry Veary, as Professor Robert Edwards (L) looks on, during 25th anniversary celebrations of the revolutionary fertility treatment 'In Vitro Fertilisation' (IVF) at Bourne Hall in Cambridgeshire, UK, July 26, 2003. File Image/Reuters As part of Firstpost's _History Today series,_ some of July 25's milestones come across science, politics and space exploration. In 1978, Louise Joy Brown became the world's first baby born through in vitro fertilisation — a transformative moment that reshaped reproductive medicine. In 2007, Pratibha Patil was sworn in as the first woman President of India. On July 25, 1917, dancer-turned-spy Mata Hari was sentenced to death by a French military court. And in 1984, Soviet cosmonaut Svetlana Savitskaya became the first woman to walk in space. STORY CONTINUES BELOW THIS AD World's first 'test tube' baby born On July 25, 1978, at 11:47 pm in Oldham General Hospital, Lancashire, England, Louise Joy Brown was born weighing 5 pounds, 12 ounces. Her birth was unlike any other in human history. Louise was the world's first baby conceived through in vitro fertilisation (IVF) — an extraordinary scientific breakthrough that not only revolutionised reproductive medicine but also profoundly reshaped cultural and ethical debates surrounding human conception. This moment marked the culmination of years of pioneering medical research, social controversy, and a fundamental leap in our understanding of fertility science. The team responsible for this landmark achievement comprised three key figures: Dr. Patrick Steptoe , a British obstetrician and gynecologist; Dr. Robert Edwards , a physiologist and embryologist; And Jean Purdy, a nurse and embryology technician who played a vital, often under-acknowledged role in the daily handling and observation of embryos. Their collaboration began in the 1960s. Edwards had long been investigating fertilisation outside the body in laboratory settings, while Steptoe had been developing techniques in laparoscopy, a key method for retrieving eggs from a woman's ovaries. Purdy meticulously documented and managed embryonic development procedures. Between 1969 and 1978, the trio worked tirelessly, often facing medical and ethical opposition from peers, the press and political figures. Over 80 IVF attempts were made during this period without a successful full-term pregnancy. They also struggled with funding, relying partially on private backers and working in relative isolation from the mainstream medical establishment. Their persistence paid off in late 1977, when Lesley and John Brown, a working-class couple from Bristol who had been trying to conceive for nine years, agreed to undergo the then-experimental procedure. STORY CONTINUES BELOW THIS AD Lesley Brown suffered from blocked fallopian tubes, making natural conception virtually impossible. After reading about Steptoe and Edwards in a magazine, the Browns decided to take a chance. On November 10, 1977, doctors retrieved a single mature egg from Lesley's ovaries via laparoscopy. This egg was fertilised with John Brown's sperm in a laboratory petri dish at the Bourn Hall Clinic in Cambridge, then incubated and monitored for proper cell division. After 2.5 days of development, the embryo was transferred into Lesley's uterus. There was cautious optimism. The embryo implanted successfully, and for nine months the Browns' pregnancy proceeded normally. On the night of July 25, a caesarean section was performed due to delivery complications. Louise Brown was born — healthy, breathing, and utterly ordinary in every respect except for the way she was conceived. News of Louise's birth generated headlines around the world. Many hailed it as a triumph of modern medicine and human ingenuity. Others, including religious authorities and some bioethicists, raised serious concerns about the moral implications of creating life outside the womb. STORY CONTINUES BELOW THIS AD The Catholic Church, in particular, voiced strong opposition, warning that IVF could lead to the commodification of human life, embryo destruction and a slippery slope toward eugenics. Others questioned whether children born through IVF would be psychologically or physically different. Louise Brown herself would later reflect that she grew up 'just like any other kid,' with no physical or psychological differences attributable to her method of conception. Her birth gradually helped erode stigma and normalise IVF for millions of families around the globe. Nevertheless, her arrival also brought forward larger ethical questions still debated today: What defines parenthood? Should there be limits to embryo manipulation? What about the fate of unused embryos? And who has access to these expensive treatments? Despite the controversy, the success of Louise's birth opened the floodgates for further development in assisted reproductive technologies. By the mid-1980s, IVF clinics were emerging across Europe, the United States and Australia. In 1981, Elizabeth Carr became the first IVF baby born in the United States. STORY CONTINUES BELOW THIS AD Other nations followed rapidly. Techniques improved dramatically: egg retrieval became more precise, embryo freezing more reliable, and implantation methods less invasive. IVF no longer required natural ovulation cycles; hormonal stimulation could increase the number of retrievable eggs. By the 1990s, intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) was introduced, allowing even severely infertile men to father children by injecting a single sperm directly into an egg. The cumulative effect was seismic. In the decades following Louise Brown's birth, over 12 million babies have been born worldwide through IVF and related technologies, according to the International Committee Monitoring Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ICMART). IVF has become standard practice for treating infertility, enabling same-sex couples and single parents to have biological children. Countries like Israel and Denmark now fund fertility treatments through public health insurance. In contrast, access remains limited or prohibitively expensive in many other parts of the world, including parts of Asia, Africa and Latin America. Despite their groundbreaking work, recognition for the IVF pioneers came slowly. Edwards was eventually awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2010, just three years before his death. STORY CONTINUES BELOW THIS AD The world's first 'test tube baby' Britain's Louise Brown (R) listens as Professor Robert Edwards (L) addresses the media during 25th anniversary celebrations of the revolutionary fertility treatment ' In Vitro Fertilization' ( IVF) at Bourne Hall in Cambridgeshire, UK, July 26, 2003. File Image/Reuters Steptoe passed away in 1988, before Nobel rules allowed posthumous recognition. Purdy's contributions were marginalised for decades; her name was initially omitted from official plaques and commendations. In recent years, efforts have been made to restore her role in history. A commemorative plaque unveiled in 2015 at Bourn Hall Clinic, now a major fertility centre, included her name alongside Edwards and Steptoe. As for Louise Brown, she has embraced her place in history, living a private life in Bristol, working in administrative roles, and raising two children conceived naturally. 'I was just a baby,' she has often said in interviews. 'It's the doctors who should be remembered.' The birth of Louise Brown on July 25, 1978, stands as a watershed moment not only in medical science but in human culture. It proved that conception was no longer bound solely by natural fertility. For millions of individuals and couples who once faced hopelessness, IVF opened new doors — and new definitions of family. STORY CONTINUES BELOW THIS AD Pratibha Patil becomes first woman president of India On July 25, 2007, Pratibha Devisingh Patil was sworn in as India's 12th President, becoming the first woman to hold the office. A seasoned lawyer and politician, she served as Governor of Rajasthan and as a member of both legislative houses. Her inauguration symbolised a historic milestone for Indian democracy and gender equity. During her five-year tenure, Patil championed women's education, empowerment and rural development. India's outgoing President Pratibha Patil waves to photographers at India's presidential palace Rashtrapati Bhavan in New Delhi, July 25, 2012. File Image/Reuters She was a vocal advocate for marginalised communities, promoting inclusive policies and grass-roots engagement across India. Her election set the stage for broader female political leadership and remains a touchstone in India's journey toward gender equality. Mata Hari sentenced to death On July 25, 1917, Margaretha Geertruida Zelle, better known by her stage name Mata Hari, was sentenced to death by a French military court in Paris. Accused of spying for Germany during World War I, she was convicted in under an hour on flimsy evidence. Born in the Netherlands, Mata Hari reinvented herself as an exotic dancer in Paris, charming powerful men. Despite accusations of betrayal and alleged links to German officers, many historians believe she was a scapegoat to channel blame for military setbacks. Her sensational trial and execution on October 15, 1917, paired with a legacy steeped in myth and mystery, etched her name into cultural history. STORY CONTINUES BELOW THIS AD She endures as the archetype of the seductive spy — her story explored in books, films, and historical debate. Svetlana Savitskaya walks in space On July 25, 1984, aboard the Salyut 7 space station, Soviet cosmonaut Svetlana Yevgenyevna Savitskaya became the first woman to walk in space, spending approximately 3 hours and 35 minutes outside the station during the Soyuz T-12 mission. Born in Moscow in 1948, Savitskaya was a celebrated aviator before joining the esteemed ranks of cosmonauts. Yevgenyevna became the first woman to perform a space walk on July 25, 1984. Image/Russian Space Already the second woman in space after Valentina Tereshkova, this mission marked a historic leap forward in gender representation in the space programme. Her EVA featured scientific experiments such as metal cutting and welding, underscoring women's capability in demanding technical roles and paving the way for future female astronauts. Her achievement remains a milestone in space exploration and women's empowerment in STEM. With inputs from agencies
The Print
4 days ago
- The Print
China was quick to test the nuclear bomb. India missed vital landmarks
Innocent, since the name didn't convey its unifocal military purpose. The world entered the nuclear age with a military purpose, and its impact on 6 and 9 August 1945 over Hiroshima and Nagasaki are historical landmarks that will not be erased anytime soon. Reams have been written about the Manhattan Project and its impact. The ghastly use of the bomb against Japan has also been dissected threadbare. What has been relegated to dusty shelves and nerdy researchers, however, is the official report on the programme. It's unambiguously called Atomic Energy for Military Purposes . The site couldn't have been chosen because of the irony in its name. In the days of Spanish expansion into the New World, this must have certainly been a deadly route to take, but that was centuries before America's wartime quest for the world's most potent weapon. And it was tested under the codename 'Trinity'. A multi-billion-dollar initiative that involved scores of enterprises, institutions, and scientists of various disciplines working under strict military supervision, it was innocently labelled 'Manhattan Project'. In an era of multiple strifes across continents, an anniversary quietly slipped under the radar of world watchers. Eighty years ago, an explosion ushered in a new age of combat, weapons, tactics, and technology. At 5:29 am local time on 16 July 1945, the United States tested the world's first atomic bomb in the desolate desert of New Mexico in an area called Jornada del Muerto—Spanish for 'Dead Man's Road'. Among the most extraordinary aspects of the report is that it was made public on 12 August 1945, even before the radioactive clouds had lifted from Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Princeton University physicist Henry DeWolf Smyth penned the report. Within the community that contributed to making the nuclear fission device a success, the Smyth Report was the working paper on how the Manhattan Project was to be discussed. It is patently clear that the US was working on a long-term nuclear perspective. Also read: What India can learn from Israel about atmanirbharta in defence India's nuclear age The American military approach is a far cry from how India viewed the arrival of the nuclear era. Although its nuclear journey is extraordinary among formerly colonised nations, India missed vital landmarks along the way. In July 1945, India already had a nuclear research programme at the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), established months before Washington's Trinity test. Within a year of Independence, the country also had an Atomic Energy Commission, and in less than a decade, it had commissioned Asia's first nuclear reactor, APSARA, at Trombay. India was light years ahead of any other Asian country. In the 1950s, China was largely dependent on its larger ideological ally, the Soviet Union. It entered the nuclear age with a sole purpose, based on Chairman Mao's dictum, 'Power flows from the barrel of a gun.' The simple formulation offered Beijing both short-term benefits and dividends in the long run, too. It is now obvious that the possession of weapons of mass destruction will not invite military intervention in an era of mass hypocrisy. Iran and Iraq, which didn't possess nuclear arsenals, were attacked, while North Korea, which did, wasn't. Hypocrisy and discrimination are obviously kosher in today's world order. India, however, approached the nuclear era from the perspective of 'peaceful utilisation' to harness unlimited energy and enter the club of rapidly developing countries. It officially launched a three-stage nuclear programme with an indigenous research and development project. But eight decades after TIFR initiated its research programme, India remains light years away from its early energy vision. And it has also missed the bus to power by failing to test a bomb on time. Even as it was obvious that the world was entering a discriminatory nuclear regime that no amount of third-worldism or non-alignment mantras could prevent, India persisted in keeping company with those who had nothing to lose. China, on the other hand, tested its first device in 1964, as soon as it could put the nuclear bolts together. It joined the nuclear club and subsequently became a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council. By the time India tested the bomb in 1974, the doors of the nuclear elite club had closed. Manvendra Singh is a BJP leader, Editor-in-Chief of Defence & Security Alert, and Chairman, Soldier Welfare Advisory Committee, Rajasthan. He tweets @ManvendraJasol. Views are personal. (Edited by Prasanna Bachchhav)
