Madrasahs, resistance, and the creation and preservation of Arabic Afrikaans

Daily Maverick

17-07-2025

In her poem, Afrikaans, 'n versoeningstaal (Afrikaans, a language of reconciliation), Diana Ferrus describes the language as follows:
Maar uit die buik van Afrika
kom sy,
uit die monde van slawe, Europeërs en inheemse volke
dans sy op die maat
van oeroue tromme
en handgemaakte kitare,
dra sy kostuums van vele kleure
en sing sy in 'n duisend stemme!
(But from the womb of Africa / she comes, / from the mouths of slaves, Europeans, and indigenous peoples / she dances to the rhythm / of ancient drums / and handmade guitars, / wearing costumes of many colours / and singing in a thousand voices!)
One of the thousand was the muzzled voice of Cape Muslims – a marginalised community that originated with the arrival of enslaved people and political exiles during the colonial era. Yet this community contributed greatly to the development of Afrikaans, including in the form of written Arabic Afrikaans.
In South Africa's literary heritage, specifically concerning Cape Muslims and Arabic Afrikaans, the late Dr Achmat Davids stands out. As a renowned linguist, historian, and formidable researcher, his pioneering work about the Cape Muslims and development of Arabic Afrikaans in the 1800s highlighted the dedication and intellect of this marginalised community.
Suleman Dangor writes how Muslim slaves were stripped of their fundamental human rights, including the right to worship freely and openly.
Despite their harsh conditions, this group of people, led by Sheikh Yusuf of Makassar (a resistance leader, Islamic scholar and exile to the Cape), met in secret to worship. Although it probably did not occur regularly, these gatherings played a crucial role in preserving their faith and sense of belonging. These meetings are considered the earliest form of a madrasah system in South Africa.
Innovation at the southern tip of Africa
A madrasah is a Muslim school where learners are taught the teachings of Islam and the Qur'an from a young age. The Qur'an is regarded as the literal word of God, revealed in Arabic to the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). It is important for Muslims to learn to read, write and understand this language. The madrasah is thus the place where Allah is always honoured, and where His word and instructions are taught as a guidance for Muslim life.
In South Africa, madrasahs did not only serve as centres for religious education and resistance against slavery, colonialism and apartheid, but also played a major role in language development, particularly in the creation and preservation of Arabic Afrikaans. This refers to a unique form of written Afrikaans using the Arabic script – at first glance, it looks like Arabic, but when read aloud, Afrikaans is clearly heard.
This unique writing style also reflects the intellect and innovation of the Muslim slaves who, according to Davids, used a kind of 'innovative orthographic engineering' to transcribe Afrikaans using Arabic letters. This was possible because many of the Muslim slaves, originating from the East, were already familiar with the Arabic alphabet and how it had been adapted for other languages.
Arabic Afrikaans as language of liberation
Using Arabic letters to write languages other than Arabic is not unique to South Africa. Tuan Guru, founder of the first recognised madrasah and the first imam (Muslim cleric) in South Africa, used the Arabic script to write in Malay through a process known as Ajami.
This practice was continued by others, including Abu Bakr Effendi, who is known for writing the first translated religious text in Afrikaans, Bayaan-ud-Din ('Explanation of the religion'), in Arabic Afrikaans.
As Cape Muslims increasingly spoke Afrikaans (Cape Dutch) instead of Malay, the Arabic script had to be adapted to capture uniquely Afrikaans sounds, hence the development of this exceptional writing tradition.
In the context of the madrasah system, Arabic Afrikaans can also be seen as a form of cultural and linguistic resistance. Under Dutch and British rule, Cape Muslims were marginalised, and their identities suppressed.
Through Arabic Afrikaans, this community cleverly linked their faith with their everyday language. In doing so, they helped transform Dutch – originally used as a colonial tool of oppression – into a new language and a form of empowerment and cultural preservation.
Davids attributes the birth and development of the Arabic Afrikaans literary form in South Africa to a strong and well-organised madrasah system, which is still active today.
Toelies in Salt River
As a brown Muslim child in Salt River, Cape Town, during the late 1970s, I myself was part of this system. My grandfather, Mogamat Yusuf Isaacs (whom we called 'Boeia'), was my khalifa, or madrasah teacher, and applied the teachings and memorisation of the Qur'an very strictly.
The words had to be learnt and pronounced correctly, as mistakes could alter the meaning of God's message. Mistakes were often met with harsh discipline. Additionally, we had to learn to toelies (write) in Arabic.
That said, it wasn't all fearsome. If you knew your 'les' – reciting verses from the Qur'an or other teachings – you'd be rewarded with a sweet treat!
Interestingly, many kitabs (holy books) were written in Roman script, but spelt using Afrikaans phonetics, such as Biesmiella(h) instead of Bismillah. Kaaps Afrikaans sounds – like the 'oe' in 'boem' (boom) and the 'ie' in 'gie' (gee) – were strongly influenced by the Arabic vowel sounds bouwa/kasrah (for the 'ie' sound) and dappan/domma (for the 'oe' sound).
After my grandfather passed away, I had to take over the madrasah, thereby continuing the process of knowledge transfer. Little did I know that decades later I would share even more knowledge, thanks to the Afrikaans Language Museum and Monument's competitions and workshops, where I now can introduce the wonder of Arabic Afrikaans to young and old people from all backgrounds, through madrasah-style classes.
The fact that this institution promotes a true reflection of the origins of Afrikaans is heartwarming. By focusing on deconstructing Afrikaans as a so-called 'white man's language' and showcasing its diverse origins, the institution succeeds in presenting Afrikaans as an inclusive language. This fosters understanding and healing, something I deeply experience among the excited participants of the Arabic Afrikaans workshops. DM