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Indian Express
5 hours ago
- Politics
- Indian Express
Blitzkrieg to Hiroshima: How the Second World War reshaped the global order
In a historic move, the UK and Germany signed their first bilateral treaty since the Second World War, pledging 'mutual assistance' in case of attack. This development warrants a look back at the Second World War, in which the UK was a major Allied power while Germany was an Axis. The first thing that strikes one about the Second World War is the small time gap that divides it from the First World War, a mere 21 years. The First World War ended on November 11, 1918, and the Second World War began on September 1, 1939, when Hitler invaded Poland. The First World War was concluded with a very flawed peace agreement in the form of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. It was the failures of this peace agreement and the resentment felt by Germany at the unjust conditions imposed upon it that gave rise to the Second World War. The Second World War lasted from 1939 to 1945 and caused a staggering loss of between 40 to 50 million lives. The path to the Second World War was a steady, two-decade-long buildup. A combination of political and economic factors came together to pave the way for the rise of a politician like Adolf Hitler in Germany. After the First World War, the liberal Weimar Republic replaced the Wilhelmine monarchy in Germany. Throughout the 1920s, it was shaped by leaders like Gustav Stresemann, who adapted to the new realities of the Weimar Republic after the fall of the monarchy. Stresemann briefly served as Chancellor in 1923 and then as Foreign Minister until his death in 1929. He was opposed to the Treaty of Versailles, whose terms he found difficult to implement. Among the provisions of the treaty were the payment of war reparations to the victorious Allies and the demilitarisation of the Rhineland that lay on Germany's Western border with France. In 1923, Germany experienced hyper-inflation as it struggled to pay the war reparations that were imposed by the Treaty of Versailles. Rifts appeared between Britain and France in terms of how to impose the measures of the treaty. At the same time, the famed and lofty idealism of the US President Woodrow Wilson came into play through his famous fourteen points. The last point created the League of Nations, which was to serve as the predecessor of the United Nations that was set up in the immediate aftermath of the Second World War in October 1945. However, other aspects of Wilson's lofty idealism such as the right to national self-determination were to come crashing down on the harsh realities of European politics in the immediate aftermath of the First World War. Eventually, even the US Senate rejected the Treaty of Versailles. There are perhaps three elements that define the build-up to the Second World War. The first was the unstable nature of the Weimar Republic, whose economic difficulties were exploited by a rising politician like Adolf Hitler. The Weimar Republic came to an end in 1933 when the Nazi party secured dominance in the German parliament, the Reichstag, and Hitler was appointed as Chancellor. The second factor was the harsh economic realities of the 1920s and 1930s. The Great Wall Street Crash of October 1929 was one of the world's first truly economic crises, whose adverse effects and reverberations were felt all around the world, and especially in Europe. The Wall Street crash ushered in a decade (the 1930s) seen in terms of economic depression and unemployment. In response to this crisis, British economist John Maynard Keynes produced his seminal work The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money in 1936. His ideas would later play a significant role in shaping the post-Second World War international economic order, particularly through the setting up of the Bretton Woods institutions such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank. The third major factor leading to the Second World War was the policy of appeasement adopted by Great Britain towards the escalating demands of Germany. This policy is associated with British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, especially as it played out at the Munich conference of 1938. Chamberlain believed that the policy of appeasement was the best way to avoid war and to buy time for Britain to prepare militarily. Signs of impending war became obvious as early as 1936, when Hitler decided to remilitarise the Rhineland in violation of one of the key provisions of the Treaty of Versailles. That same year in July, Hitler's Nazi Germany and Benito Mussolini's Italy came together and backed General Francisco Franco's fascist assault against the Republicans in the Spanish Civil War. In 1938, Hitler signed the Anschluss or pact with Austria that resulted in the merger of Austria with Germany, which further consolidated his position. That same year, Hitler kept making the case for the Sudeten Germans in Czechoslovakia, using their minority status to persuade France and Britain that the Sudetenland must be ceded to Germany. This was followed the next year in 1939 by Germany's invasion and occupation of the rest of Czechoslovakia. The Second World War was very different from the First World War as far as the greater use of air power was concerned. The German air force or the Luftwaffe, conducted devastating air raids on London and other major British cities in the early stages of the war. The Battle of Britain, which took place between July and October 1940, saw the British Royal Air Force (RAF) and the German Luftwaffe engage in intense aerial combat. The Allied powers – Great Britain, France, the US, and the Soviet Union – were pitted against the Axis powers – Germany, Italy and Japan. The early stages of the war saw German advances through overwhelming aerial strikes that were then rapidly followed by military and tank maneuvers on the ground. These tactics, known as the blitzkrieg ('lightning war'), allowed the Germans to overrun Poland, Denmark, Norway, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, Yugoslavia, and Greece in the short span between September 1939 and April 1941. The American entry into the war, following the Japanese attack on the US naval base at Pearl Harbour on December 7, 1941, significantly turned the tide in favour of the Allied powers as the US was able to deploy massive amounts of military resources. The American entry into the war was preceded by the lend-lease agreement that allowed President Franklin Delano Roosevelt to transfer large amounts of war material, supplies and munitions to the Allies. A decisive turning point came when the German offensive against Soviet Russia on the Eastern Front was thwarted at the famous Battle of Stalingrad that took place between August 23, 1942 and February 2, 1943. The Germans suffered other major reversals in the battlefields in Northern Africa, most famously the Second Battle of El-Alamein between October 23 and November 11, 1942, when the famous German Field Marshall Erwin Rommel was defeated. As a result, Italian and German advances in North Africa, especially around the strategically significant Suez Canal, were checked. The Axis powers seemed to be doing better in East Asia. In February 1942, British-controlled Singapore fell to the Japanese Red Army, which continued its advance by taking over the Andaman Islands in March 1942. One of the most frequently talked about military turning points of the Second World War happened on June 6, 1944, with Operation Overlord that saw the landing of 1,56,000 men on the beaches of Normandy in northern France. This military operation was under the overall command of General Dwight D. Eisenhower, who would go on to serve as US President in the next decade. As 1944 drew to a close and 1945 began, the war's trajectory was marked by advances of Allied powers, the US and British, from the West and the Soviet forces from the East as they closed in on Berlin, with the final fall happening in May 1945. Hitler himself committed suicide along with his mistress Eva Braun on April 30, 1945, when Soviet forces were on the verge of reaching Berlin. A few months later, the Second World War came to a conclusive end, with the dropping of atomic bombs by the US over the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in early August 1945. The defeat of the Axis powers created a new world order that was defined by the hegemony of the US. In terms of the lineaments of the new world order, it gave rise to an international rules-based system. Landmark proceedings such as the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials set important legal precedents by introducing concepts like war crimes and crimes against humanity. The horrors of the Holocaust and the concentration camps run by the Nazis gave rise to the Genocide Convention adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1948, which emphasized the idea that such unspeakable crimes must 'never again' happen. In what ways did the Second World War differ from the First World War in terms of strategy, technology, and scale? To what extent was the German strategy of blitzkrieg responsible for early Axis victories? How did the entry of the US in WWII transform the balance of power? How did the dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki shape the post-war geopolitical landscape? In what ways did the Holocaust influence the formation of post-war human rights conventions and norms? Evaluate how the experiences of the Second World War shaped the creation of post-war multilateral institutions, such as the UN, the IMF and the World Bank. (Amir Ali is an Assistant Professor at the Centre for Political Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi) Share your thoughts and ideas on UPSC Special articles with Subscribe to our UPSC newsletter and stay updated with the news cues from the past week. Stay updated with the latest UPSC articles by joining our Telegram channel – IndianExpress UPSC Hub, and follow us on Instagram and X.
STV News
12 hours ago
- Science
- STV News
Operation Sandcastle: The mission to destroy Hitler's chemical weapons
In 1936, a German researcher named Gerhard Schrader created the first ever nerve agent by accident. He was attempting to develop a new insecticide for Germany's food supply, but instead created a deadly chemical weapon, which, while on the brink of war, Hitler would begin developing to use on the Allied forces. Thankfully, the nerve agent was never deployed by the Nazis, and after the war, Britain found itself needing to dispose of what it had seized. Operation Sandcastle was the mission to get rid of a stockpile of more than 71,000 bombs in the sea off the coasts of Scotland and Northern Ireland. Today, 70 years on, there are still many unanswered questions. After discovering that Schrader's insecticide not only killed insects but also the animals around them, researchers began developing it as a weapon as World War II loomed. The nerve agent was called Tabun, from the German word for taboo. While other chemical weapons such as mustard gas and phosgene took hours or days to kill victims, Tabun required only 20 minutes. In 1943, the first large-scale Tabun factory was up and running in Poland. Hitler, however, never sanctioned the use of Tabu. In the years after the war ended, the British captured thousands of German bombs filled with the nerve agent. While most were destroyed, a stockpile was split between Britain and the US. But many of the bombs were leaking or were too dangerous to keep. In 1954, the Ministry of Defence concluded that the Tabun held no value in a world with nuclear weapons and, by then, more advanced chemical weapons like sarin were prevalent. Operation Sandcastle was tasked with dumping the stockpile of Tabun 80 miles north west of Northern Ireland. The stockpile was first brought to Cairnyan, in Dumfries and Galloway, where the weapons were divided among three ships to be ready for scuttling – the act of purposefully sinking a ship. On July 25, 1955, 16,088 bombs were loaded onto the SS Empire Claire before it was towed out to sea. iStock At around 10am, on July 27, TNT charges were used to sink the vessel and its load 2,500 metres down into the depths of the Atlantic Ocean. The MV Vogtland and the SS Kotka were loaded with the rest of Tabun, approximately 26,000 bombs each, and they too were sunk. In 2020, the Ministry of Defence was criticised after it was revealed it lost the records containing the details of 24 chemical weapons, including those of Operation Sandcastle. It was also revealed that the dumped nerve agent was never monitored. Google Earth According to the then-secretary state of defence, there was no monitoring because of the depth of the water and because Tabun is 'destroyed by hydrolysis and rendered harmless in seawater'. After the destruction, the world has not seen the end of chemical weapons. During the Iran-Iraq war beginning in 1980, Iran engaged in chemical warfare against Iraq. It was used in the Tokyo subway terrorist attacks in 1995. In 2012, the Syrian regime used the chemical weapon sarin on its own civilians during the 14-year-long civil war. Get all the latest news from around the country Follow STV News Scan the QR code on your mobile device for all the latest news from around the country
Metro
2 days ago
- Entertainment
- Metro
Last surviving Hogan's Heroes cast member Kenneth Washington dies aged 89
Hogan's Heroes star Kenneth Washington has died aged 89. The TV and film actor was best known for playing Sergeant Richard Baker on the final season of Hogan''s Heroes. Created by Bernard Fein and Albert S. Ruddy, the American sitcom was set in a prisoner-of-war (POW) camp in Nazi Germany during World War II and followed around a group of Allied prisoners who use the POW camp as an operations base for sabotage and espionage activities directed against Nazi Germany. Airing from 1965 until 1971, it ran for 168 episodes across six seasons. A year after Washington was cast on the show, it was cancelled in 1971 by CBS. Since the death of Robert Clary in November 2022, Washington had been the last surviving principal cast member of Hogan's Heroes, along with Nita Talbot. His death was first reported by Variety. Washington's other most notable role was as Officer Miller in the police drama Adam-12, which aired from 1968 until 1975. More Trending Throughout his career, the actor also appeared on Star Trek, I Dream of Jeannie, The Name of the Game, Petticoat Junction and Dragnet 1967. He also featured in the 1973 movie Westworld. Despite his string of screen credits, Washington retired from screen roles in the late 1980s. View More » His last TV appearance was in the 1989 show A Different World. Got a story? If you've got a celebrity story, video or pictures get in touch with the entertainment team by emailing us celebtips@ calling 020 3615 2145 or by visiting our Submit Stuff page – we'd love to hear from you. MORE: 'I lead a wondrous new TV period drama – it's a blessing' MORE: Music legend Ozzy Osbourne dies 'surrounded by love' aged 76 MORE: Steven Knight's 'utterly compelling' thriller series quietly added to free streaming service
Time of India
3 days ago
- General
- Time of India
World War 2 relics found in Imphal West dist
1 2 3 4 Imphal: Several World War 2 relics, believed to be left behind by soldiers involved in the Battle of Imphal in 1944, were found by labourers at Langthabal in Imphal West district on Tuesday morning, officials said. The relics were discovered four feet under the ground by labourers while digging for construction works at Langthabal. A large number of rusted empty cases, water bottles, one grenade, shells, spades, a rusted tin can, and items that are yet to be identified were recovered. Further digging is underway to recover other items, an official said. The relics are believed to be left behind by the Allied Forces, as there was an Allied camp at nearby Canchipur hills during the World War 2 period, another official said. In 1944, forces of Imperial Japan surrounded the hills of Manipur but could not overrun the massive Allied army camps set up in different parts of Imphal valley. The Battle of Imphal, along with the Battle of Kohima involving Imperial Japan, Azad Hind, and Allied Forces comprising British and Indian soldiers, is considered Britain's greatest war by the British National Army museum. The battle was a significant victory for Allied Forces and stopped the Japanese advance to then British India. More than 54,000 Japanese troops were killed or wounded, while more than 12,000 Allied soldiers died or got injured in the Battle of Imphal.
Pink Villa
3 days ago
- Entertainment
- Pink Villa
Predator Badlands Trailer: Elle Fanning and Dimitrius Schuster-Koloamatangi Join Hands to Star in Future-Set Survival Story, WATCH
20th Century Fox has dropped the first trailer of the Elle Fanning starrer, Predator: Badlands. The upcoming movie is the latest entry into the long-running Predators franchise. The preview dropped on Tuesday and showcased the newcomer, Dimitrus Schuster-Koloamatangi, who will portray the role of a predator and share the screen alongside Fanning. The new sci-fi movie is directed by Dan Trachtenberg, who is known for his work in Prey, and is scheduled to hit theaters in November this year. What to expect from Predator: Badlands? In the movie set to release by the end of this year, Fanning, who will play the role of the field unit robot, will be sent to the most dangerous alien planet, where she will have to hunt the predator creature, who 'can't be killed.' As per the official synopsis of the film, 'Predator: Badlands, which stars Elle Fanning and Dimitrius Schuster-Koloamatangi, is set in the future on a remote planet, where a young Predator, an outcast from his clan, finds an unlikely ally in Thia (Fanning) and embarks on a treacherous journey in search of the ultimate adversary.' Meanwhile, Predator: Badlands is the ninth movie of the franchise, with the original one releasing in 1987. The producers of the new film include Tratchenberg, alongside John Davis, Marc Toberoff, Ben Rosenblatt, and Brent O'Connor. The eighth installment of the franchise was dropped earlier this year, which was also directed by the filmmaker who has taken the seat behind the camera for the new film as well. The synopsis of the last film read, 'The anthology story follows three of the fiercest warriors in human history: a Viking raider guiding her young son on a bloody quest for revenge, a ninja in feudal Japan who turns against his Samurai brother in a brutal battle for succession, and a WWII pilot who takes to the sky to investigate an otherworldly threat to the Allied cause.' Predator: Badlands will hit theaters on November 7, 2025.
