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Yahoo
3 days ago
- Science
- Yahoo
Prime numbers, the building blocks of mathematics, have fascinated for centuries − now technology is revolutionizing the search for them
A shard of smooth bone etched with irregular marks dating back 20,000 years puzzled archaeologists until they noticed something unique – the etchings, lines like tally marks, may have represented prime numbers. Similarly, a clay tablet from 1800 B.C.E. inscribed with Babylonian numbers describes a number system built on prime numbers. As the Ishango bone, the Plimpton 322 tablet and other artifacts throughout history display, prime numbers have fascinated and captivated people throughout history. Today, prime numbers and their properties are studied in number theory, a branch of mathematics and active area of research today. Informally, a positive counting number larger than one is prime if that number of dots can be arranged only into a rectangular array with one column or one row. For example, 11 is a prime number since 11 dots form only rectangular arrays of sizes 1 by 11 and 11 by 1. Conversely, 12 is not prime since you can use 12 dots to make an array of 3 by 4 dots, with multiple rows and multiple columns. Math textbooks define a prime number as a whole number greater than one whose only positive divisors are only 1 and itself. Math historian Peter S. Rudman suggests that Greek mathematicians were likely the first to understand the concept of prime numbers, around 500 B.C.E. Around 300 B.C.E., the Greek mathematician and logician Euler proved that there are infinitely many prime numbers. Euler began by assuming that there is a finite number of primes. Then he came up with a prime that was not on the original list to create a contradiction. Since a fundamental principle of mathematics is being logically consistent with no contradictions, Euler then concluded that his original assumption must be false. So, there are infinitely many primes. The argument established the existence of infinitely many primes, however it was not particularly constructive. Euler had no efficient method to list all the primes in an ascending list. In the middle ages, Arab mathematicians advanced the Greeks' theory of prime numbers, referred to as hasam numbers during this time. The Persian mathematician Kamal al-Din al-Farisi formulated the fundamental theorem of arithmetic, which states that any positive integer larger than one can be expressed uniquely as a product of primes. From this view, prime numbers are the basic building blocks for constructing any positive whole number using multiplication – akin to atoms combining to make molecules in chemistry. Prime numbers can be sorted into different types. In 1202, Leonardo Fibonacci introduced in his book 'Liber Abaci: Book of Calculation' prime numbers of the form (2p - 1) where p is also prime. Today, primes in this form are called Mersenne primes after the French monk Marin Mersenne. Many of the largest known primes follow this format. Several early mathematicians believed that a number of the form (2p – 1) is prime whenever p is prime. But in 1536, mathematician Hudalricus Regius noticed that 11 is prime but not (211 - 1), which equals 2047. The number 2047 can be expressed as 11 times 89, disproving the conjecture. While not always true, number theorists realized that the (2p - 1) shortcut often produces primes and gives a systematic way to search for large primes. The number (2p – 1) is much larger relative to the value of p and provides opportunities to identify large primes. When the number (2p - 1) becomes sufficiently large, it is much harder to check whether (2p - 1) is prime – that is, if (2p - 1) dots can be arranged only into a rectangular array with one column or one row. Fortunately, Édouard Lucas developed a prime number test in 1878, later proved by Derrick Henry Lehmer in 1930. Their work resulted in an efficient algorithm for evaluating potential Mersenne primes. Using this algorithm with hand computations on paper, Lucas showed in 1876 that the 39-digit number (2127 - 1) equals 170,141,183,460,469,231,731,687,303,715,884,105,727, and that value is prime. Also known as M127, this number remains the largest prime verified by hand computations. It held the record for largest known prime for 75 years. Researchers began using computers in the 1950s, and the pace of discovering new large primes increased. In 1952, Raphael M. Robinson identified five new Mersenne primes using a Standard Western Automatic Computer to carry out the Lucas-Lehmer prime number tests. As computers improved, the list of Mersenne primes grew, especially with the Cray supercomputer's arrival in 1964. Although there are infinitely many primes, researchers are unsure how many fit the type (2p - 1) and are Mersenne primes. By the early 1980s, researchers had accumulated enough data to confidently believe that infinitely many Mersenne primes exist. They could even guess how often these prime numbers appear, on average. Mathematicians have not found proof so far, but new data continues to support these guesses. George Woltman, a computer scientist, founded the Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search, or GIMPS, in 1996. Through this collaborative program, anyone can download freely available software from the GIMPS website to search for Mersenne prime numbers on their personal computers. The website contains specific instructions on how to participate. GIMPS has now identified 18 Mersenne primes, primarily on personal computers using Intel chips. The program averages a new discovery about every one to two years. Luke Durant, a retired programmer, discovered the current record for the largest known prime, (2136,279,841 - 1), in October 2024. Referred to as M136279841, this 41,024,320-digit number was the 52nd Mersenne prime identified and was found by running GIMPS on a publicly available cloud-based computing network. This network used Nvidia chips and ran across 17 countries and 24 data centers. These advanced chips provide faster computing by handling thousands of calculations simultaneously. The result is shorter run times for algorithms such as prime number testing. The Electronic Frontier Foundation is a civil liberty group that offers cash prizes for identifying large primes. It awarded prizes in 2000 and 2009 for the first verified 1 million-digit and 10 million-digit prime numbers. Large prime number enthusiasts' next two challenges are to identify the first 100 million-digit and 1 billion-digit primes. EFF prizes of US$150,000 and $250,000, respectively, await the first successful individual or group. Eight of the 10 largest known prime numbers are Mersenne primes, so GIMPS and cloud computing are poised to play a prominent role in the search for record-breaking large prime numbers. Large prime numbers have a vital role in many encryption methods in cybersecurity, so every internet user stands to benefit from the search for large prime numbers. These searches help keep digital communications and sensitive information safe. This article is republished from The Conversation, a nonprofit, independent news organization bringing you facts and trustworthy analysis to help you make sense of our complex world. It was written by: Jeremiah Bartz, University of North Dakota Read more: Planning the best route with multiple destinations is hard even for supercomputers – a new approach breaks a barrier that's stood for nearly half a century Why does nature create patterns? A physicist explains the molecular-level processes behind crystals, stripes and basalt columns Art and science illuminate the same subtle proportions in tree branches Jeremiah Bartz owns shares in Nvidia.
UPI
3 days ago
- Science
- UPI
Tech revolutionizes centuries-old search for prime numbers
A laptop represents today's tools fueling the global search for massive prime numbers, essential for both mathematics and cybersecurity. Photo by Tony Avelar/EPA May 30 (UPI) -- A shard of smooth bone etched with irregular marks dating back 20,000 years puzzled archaeologists until they noticed something unique - the etchings, lines like tally marks, may have represented prime numbers. Similarly, a clay tablet from 1800 B.C.E. inscribed with Babylonian numbers describes a number system built on prime numbers. As the Ishango bone, the Plimpton 322 tablet and other artifacts throughout history display, prime numbers have fascinated and captivated people throughout history. Today, prime numbers and their properties are studied in number theory, a branch of mathematics and active area of research today. A history of prime numbers Informally, a positive counting number larger than one is prime if that number of dots can be arranged only into a rectangular array with one column or one row. For example, 11 is a prime number since 11 dots form only rectangular arrays of sizes 1 by 11 and 11 by 1. Conversely, 12 is not prime since you can use 12 dots to make an array of 3 by 4 dots, with multiple rows and multiple columns. Math textbooks define a prime number as a whole number greater than one whose only positive divisors are only 1 and itself. Math historian Peter S. Rudman suggests that Greek mathematicians were likely the first to understand the concept of prime numbers, around 500 B.C.E. Around 300 B.C.E., the Greek mathematician and logician Euler proved that there are infinitely many prime numbers. Euler began by assuming that there is a finite number of primes. Then he came up with a prime that was not on the original list to create a contradiction. Since a fundamental principle of mathematics is being logically consistent with no contradictions, Euler then concluded that his original assumption must be false. So, there are infinitely many primes. The argument established the existence of infinitely many primes, however it was not particularly constructive. Euler had no efficient method to list all the primes in an ascending list. In the middle ages, Arab mathematicians advanced the Greeks' theory of prime numbers, referred to as hasam numbers during this time. The Persian mathematician Kamal al-Din al-Farisi formulated the fundamental theorem of arithmetic, which states that any positive integer larger than one can be expressed uniquely as a product of primes. From this view, prime numbers are the basic building blocks for constructing any positive whole number using multiplication - akin to atoms combining to make molecules in chemistry. Prime numbers can be sorted into different types. In 1202, Leonardo Fibonacci introduced in his book "Liber Abaci: Book of Calculation" prime numbers of the form (2p - 1) where p is also prime. Today, primes in this form are called Mersenne primes after the French monk Marin Mersenne. Many of the largest known primes follow this format. Several early mathematicians believed that a number of the form (2p - 1) is prime whenever p is prime. But in 1536, mathematician Hudalricus Regius noticed that 11 is prime but not (211 - 1), which equals 2047. The number 2047 can be expressed as 11 times 89, disproving the conjecture. While not always true, number theorists realized that the (2p - 1) shortcut often produces primes and gives a systematic way to search for large primes. The search for large primes The number (2p - 1) is much larger relative to the value of p and provides opportunities to identify large primes. When the number (2p - 1) becomes sufficiently large, it is much harder to check whether (2p - 1) is prime - that is, if (2p - 1) dots can be arranged only into a rectangular array with one column or one row. Fortunately, Édouard Lucas developed a prime number test in 1878, later proved by Derrick Henry Lehmer in 1930. Their work resulted in an efficient algorithm for evaluating potential Mersenne primes. Using this algorithm with hand computations on paper, Lucas showed in 1876 that the 39-digit number (2127 - 1) equals 170,141,183,460,469,231,731,687,303,715,884,105,727, and that value is prime. Also known as M127, this number remains the largest prime verified by hand computations. It held the record for largest known prime for 75 years. Researchers began using computers in the 1950s, and the pace of discovering new large primes increased. In 1952, Raphael M. Robinson identified five new Mersenne primes using a Standard Western Automatic Computer to carry out the Lucas-Lehmer prime number tests. As computers improved, the list of Mersenne primes grew, especially with the Cray supercomputer's arrival in 1964. Although there are infinitely many primes, researchers are unsure how many fit the type (2p - 1) and are Mersenne primes. By the early 1980s, researchers had accumulated enough data to confidently believe that infinitely many Mersenne primes exist. They could even guess how often these prime numbers appear, on average. Mathematicians have not found proof so far, but new data continues to support these guesses. George Woltman, a computer scientist, founded the Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search, or GIMPS, in 1996. Through this collaborative program, anyone can download freely available software from the GIMPS website to search for Mersenne prime numbers on their personal computers. The website contains specific instructions on how to participate. GIMPS has now identified 18 Mersenne primes, primarily on personal computers using Intel chips. The program averages a new discovery about every one to two years. The largest known prime Luke Durant, a retired programmer, discovered the current record for the largest known prime, (2136,279,841 - 1), in October 2024. Referred to as M136279841, this 41,024,320-digit number was the 52nd Mersenne prime identified and was found by running GIMPS on a publicly available cloud-based computing network. This network used Nvidia chips and ran across 17 countries and 24 data centers. These advanced chips provide faster computing by handling thousands of calculations simultaneously. The result is shorter run times for algorithms such as prime number testing. The Electronic Frontier Foundation is a civil liberty group that offers cash prizes for identifying large primes. It awarded prizes in 2000 and 2009 for the first verified 1 million-digit and 10 million-digit prime numbers. Large prime number enthusiasts' next two challenges are to identify the first 100 million-digit and 1 billion-digit primes. EFF prizes of US$150,000 and $250,000, respectively, await the first successful individual or group. Eight of the 10 largest known prime numbers are Mersenne primes, so GIMPS and cloud computing are poised to play a prominent role in the search for record-breaking large prime numbers. Large prime numbers have a vital role in many encryption methods in cybersecurity, so every internet user stands to benefit from the search for large prime numbers. These searches help keep digital communications and sensitive information safe. Jeremiah Bartz is an associate professor of mathematics at University of North Dakota. This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article. The views and opinions in this commentary are solely those of the author.
Yahoo
4 days ago
- Entertainment
- Yahoo
It's not just kissing swans anymore. Towel art has risen to a whole new level.
As any traveler can attest to, it's the unique touches in hotel rooms and cruise cabins that make a trip that much more memorable. For both adults and children, there's nothing more uplifting than walking into your room to find a towel folded into the shape of a lovable animal. But how did the art form of origami make its way to the hospitality industry? The history of origami is as complex as the intricately folded paper. Many scholars believe that the invention of paper in China, around 100 B.C.E., coincided with the first attempts at paper folding. It was the Japanese who made origami, originally known as orikata, a large part of their culture. Because paper was very expensive, the art form was mostly used for religious rituals by the wealthy, including wrapping offerings to the gods. It wasn't until the Edo period (1603-1868) and the cost reduction of the washi paper that origami became more widespread. With the end of sakoku, the isolationist foreign policy, and the opening of trade, origami began seeing more foreign influence. Friedrich Froebel, the man responsible for kindergarten, used paper folding between 1851 and the 1920s to teach children mathematical knowledge. The art form didn't stop at paper. As early as 1529, high courts of Europe folded linen and other fabrics for decoration. Today, the art of origami inspires advancements in fields like architecture, medicine, biology, and robotics. Some modern-day inventions that are in debt to origami engineering are the ability for rapid rebuilding of structures following natural disasters; and for creating a small, flexible tool that attaches to laparoscopes and endoscopes that can quickly expand and contract so that surgeons can clean the scope without having to remove it from the surgical site. (Origami is revolutionizing technology, from medicine to space) As for towel origami, according to Stefan Christoffersson, vice president of housekeeping and logistics at Carnival Cruise Line, it was first popularized by a lieutenant of the cabin in the 1980s, and as it gained popularity, became an official part of the cruise line's stay in 1991. The popularity of towel art has maintained its appeal and Carnival even went as far as offering on-board classes for guests and publishing a book of 40 designs people could try at home. Royal Caribbean Cruises has also embraced towel art as an immersive activity for guests, offering classes and a how-to pamphlet. The possibilities are seemingly endless, and websites like Pinterest and Youtube are proof that people are loving every creation and eager to learn the art form for themselves. Even today, towel folding is one of the anticipated highlights of cruise trips. Towel art has now migrated to land and has become a common sight in hotels with a large tourist population, like the Caribbean. Towel origami can be found at larger resorts, like Club Med and Beaches, to smaller hotels like the eco-friendly Black Rock Lodge in Belize. What originated as a show-stopping, elaborate housekeeping trick evolved into something even as small as the clam shell-shaped hand towel in the showers at the Cliff House on the rocky shores of Maine. Towel art goes beyond aesthetics. For some resorts, it adds a more immersive experience for the guests. Felicia Allen-Myers, group manager of butler services at Beaches Resort, says that she once had hotel guests who saved each towel art creation throughout their stay, and by the end of the week, had a complete zoo. The art form has become so integral to guests' stays that Beaches Resort has included towel folding in their butler training. Allen-Myers says that the resort's butlers learn towel art techniques from a senior butler, and also do their own research on YouTube or Pinterest to generate ideas. Most important, says Allen-Meyers, are the conversations that butlers have with their guests. 'We have to understand who the guest is before we can actually create solid art for them.' Depending on the complexity of the design and the skill level, 'basic folds like a heart and swan can take five-to-10 minutes, but for other designs like the butterfly, octopus, dinosaur, or peacock, it may take 10-to-15 minutes—sometimes as much as 30 minutes to an hour,' says Allen-Meyers. Christoffersson notes that while there isn't an official classroom for Carnival employees, 'if you're a housekeeping attendant, your next position would be state assistant, and when they're in the cabins learning with the state of attendants, they will teach them how to create the designs.' The earliest origami designs were butterfly figures used to decorate sake cups at special events like weddings, and of course, the well-known crane design. The crane holds a special role in Japanese culture as a national treasure and is considered the bird of happiness. What originated as a paper crane has now evolved into more diverse designs. (Traditional Japanese crafts are at risk. Here's how travelers can help.) Christoffersson agrees that the designs have become more ambitious. "We just launched for the Australian market, and we took the Carnival Adventure and Carnival Encounter down there, so the team decided to come up with kangaroo towel animals, even including the baby kangaroo in the pouch.' For the 50th anniversary of the Carnival's creation, the staff wanted to create a towel macaw. 'We chose the macaw because it lives around 50 years, so they came up with the various different samples for it, and it turned out really nice.' From cruises to hotels, travelers are excited to enter rooms to find anything from towel monkeys, elephants, kissing swans, and even towel people lounging on beds or even sitting on the toilet reading the newspaper. According to Christoffersson, a false rumor began a few years ago that Carnival was putting an end to towel art in their guest cabins. The staff created a group of towel animals, all holding signs like 'we're not leaving.' The towel animals have spoken, and they're not going anywhere. Megan Margulies, an author and journalist based outside of Boston, writes about health, motherhood, travel, and the natural world.
National Geographic
4 days ago
- National Geographic
It's not just kissing swans anymore. Towel art has risen to a whole new level.
Towel folding evolved from origami, the Japanese art of paper folding. Photographs by David Brandon Geeting As any traveler can attest to, it's the unique touches in hotel rooms and cruise cabins that make a trip that much more memorable. For both adults and children, there's nothing more uplifting than walking into your room to find a towel folded into the shape of a lovable animal. But how did the art form of origami make its way to the hospitality industry? The history of origami is as complex as the intricately folded paper. Many scholars believe that the invention of paper in China, around 100 B.C.E., coincided with the first attempts at paper folding. It was the Japanese who made origami, originally known as orikata, a large part of their culture. Because paper was very expensive, the art form was mostly used for religious rituals by the wealthy, including wrapping offerings to the gods. It wasn't until the Edo period (1603-1868) and the cost reduction of the washi paper that origami became more widespread. With the end of sakoku, the isolationist foreign policy, and the opening of trade, origami began seeing more foreign influence. Friedrich Froebel, the man responsible for kindergarten, used paper folding between 1851 and the 1920s to teach children mathematical knowledge. Butlers and housekeepers try to create towel art that is unique to a guest's stay. The art form didn't stop at paper. As early as 1529, high courts of Europe folded linen and other fabrics for decoration. Today, the art of origami inspires advancements in fields like architecture, medicine, biology, and robotics. Some modern-day inventions that are in debt to origami engineering are the ability for rapid rebuilding of structures following natural disasters; and for creating a small, flexible tool that attaches to laparoscopes and endoscopes that can quickly expand and contract so that surgeons can clean the scope without having to remove it from the surgical site. (Origami is revolutionizing technology, from medicine to space) As for towel origami, according to Stefan Christoffersson, vice president of housekeeping and logistics at Carnival Cruise Line, it was first popularized by a lieutenant of the cabin in the 1980s, and as it gained popularity, became an official part of the cruise line's stay in 1991. The popularity of towel art has maintained its appeal and Carnival even went as far as offering on-board classes for guests and publishing a book of 40 designs people could try at home. Royal Caribbean Cruises has also embraced towel art as an immersive activity for guests, offering classes and a how-to pamphlet. The possibilities are seemingly endless, and websites like Pinterest and Youtube are proof that people are loving every creation and eager to learn the art form for themselves. Even today, towel folding is one of the anticipated highlights of cruise trips. Many major cruise lines and hotels train their housekeepers and butlers in the art of towel folding. Kids and adults alike look forward to seeing what towel animal will be waiting for them in their room. Towel art has now migrated to land and has become a common sight in hotels with a large tourist population, like the Caribbean. Towel origami can be found at larger resorts, like Club Med and Beaches, to smaller hotels like the eco-friendly Black Rock Lodge in Belize. What originated as a show-stopping, elaborate housekeeping trick evolved into something even as small as the clam shell-shaped hand towel in the showers at the Cliff House on the rocky shores of Maine. Towel art goes beyond aesthetics. For some resorts, it adds a more immersive experience for the guests. Felicia Allen-Myers, group manager of butler services at Beaches Resort, says that she once had hotel guests who saved each towel art creation throughout their stay, and by the end of the week, had a complete zoo. Carnival Cruise Line published a book on 40 different towel art designs people can try at home. The art form has become so integral to guests' stays that Beaches Resort has included towel folding in their butler training. Allen-Myers says that the resort's butlers learn towel art techniques from a senior butler, and also do their own research on YouTube or Pinterest to generate ideas. Most important, says Allen-Meyers, are the conversations that butlers have with their guests. 'We have to understand who the guest is before we can actually create solid art for them.' Depending on the complexity of the design and the skill level, 'basic folds like a heart and swan can take five-to-10 minutes, but for other designs like the butterfly, octopus, dinosaur, or peacock, it may take 10-to-15 minutes—sometimes as much as 30 minutes to an hour,' says Allen-Meyers. Christoffersson notes that while there isn't an official classroom for Carnival employees, 'if you're a housekeeping attendant, your next position would be state assistant, and when they're in the cabins learning with the state of attendants, they will teach them how to create the designs.' Towel folding designs The earliest origami designs were butterfly figures used to decorate sake cups at special events like weddings, and of course, the well-known crane design. The crane holds a special role in Japanese culture as a national treasure and is considered the bird of happiness. What originated as a paper crane has now evolved into more diverse designs. (Traditional Japanese crafts are at risk. Here's how travelers can help.) Christoffersson agrees that the designs have become more ambitious. "We just launched for the Australian market, and we took the Carnival Adventure and Carnival Encounter down there, so the team decided to come up with kangaroo towel animals, even including the baby kangaroo in the pouch.' For the 50th anniversary of the Carnival's creation, the staff wanted to create a towel macaw. 'We chose the macaw because it lives around 50 years, so they came up with the various different samples for it, and it turned out really nice.' From cruises to hotels, travelers are excited to enter rooms to find anything from towel monkeys, elephants, kissing swans, and even towel people lounging on beds or even sitting on the toilet reading the newspaper. According to Christoffersson, a false rumor began a few years ago that Carnival was putting an end to towel art in their guest cabins. The staff created a group of towel animals, all holding signs like 'we're not leaving.' The towel animals have spoken, and they're not going anywhere. Megan Margulies, an author and journalist based outside of Boston, writes about health, motherhood, travel, and the natural world.
Yahoo
07-05-2025
- Science
- Yahoo
Study sheds light on hallucinogenic drug rituals in ancient Peru
An ancient society in the Peruvian Andes likely used psychoactive drugs during exclusive rituals that may have helped establish social and political hierarchies seen later throughout the region, according to a new study. The prehistoric Chavín people held private and potentially secret gatherings where elite figures used "snuff tubes" to consume tobacco and hallucinogenic plant residue with properties of DMT, which can be found in a wide variety of plants, said the study published Monday in the peer-reviewed journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. When ingested, DMT causes brief, episodic visual hallucinations, according to the National Institute of Health. The study was conducted by a group of archaeologists and researchers from the United States and South America, who sought to investigate a centuries-old Chavín compound for evidence of drugs involved in the ritual practices already understood to be a central part of their culture. To do that, the team explored and analyzed artifacts found at Chavín de Huántar, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in the Andean highlands some 250 miles north of Lima. Made from stone, the ruins there are believed to date back as far as 1200 B.C.E. The Chavín occupied that site and the region more broadly until around 400 or 500 B.C.E. and are considered a major predecessor to the better-known Inca civilization. While previous research has pointed to ritual activity at Chavín de Huántar, and Chavín iconography raised questions about whether psychedelic plants were involved, the new study offered material evidence not seen before that hallucinogens were a focal point of those gatherings. Daniel Contreras, an anthropological archaeologist and professor at the University of Florida who co-authored the study and has focused his work on Chavín de Huántar for about three decades, said in a statement released that consuming psychoactive drugs, in this context, "was part of a tightly controlled ritual, likely reserved for a select few, reinforcing the social hierarchy." At Chavín de Huántar, archaeologists discovered a network of hidden rooms they called galleries, built into the larger stone complex. Inside them, the team found 23 artifacts believed to be drug paraphernalia — mainly, tubes constructed from the bones of birds that researchers say functioned as apparatuses for inhalation. Residue from plants related to the intense hallucinogenic drug DMT were found on bone artifacts discovered at Chavín de Huántar. / Credit: Daniel Contreras Chemical tests subsequently conducted on those tubes revealed six of them contained traces of hallucinogenic substance dimethyltryptamine, or DMT, a powerful psychedelic that occurs naturally in plants and animals. In four of the six articles, researchers said they found microremains related to the roots of wild Nicotiana species — also known as tobacco plants — as well as vilca bean residue, a hallucinogen related to DMT. Although research into the drug's effects on humans largely acknowledges gaps in how medical and scientific fields currently understand the body's reaction to it, some reports note that DMT causes a temporary and intense response in the brain that can result in those who've taken it to anecdotally recall visions and hallucinogenic revelations. Contreras' team contended in their study that the tubes discovered at Chavín de Huántar may not have been used exclusively for psychotropic rituals. But, when those rituals did take place, the small size of the rooms where they were found suggests that only certain members of the Chavín society were invited to partake. By offering access to altered states of consciousness, the ceremonies were integral to the creation of early class structures, providing an ideology that "justified or naturalized" inequality in social orders, Contreras said. Hallucinogenics potentially played a vital role in all of that, he told CBS News in an email. "This is compelling evidence that psychoactive plants were part of formalized and tightly-controlled rituals rather than individual vision-quests or shamanic healing practices," Contreras said. "As such, they seem to have been an important element in the long-term transition from small egalitarian societies to large stratified ones, where social, political, and economic inequality were thought of as normal and to be expected rather than unusual." Why Hegseth is calling for cuts to senior ranks across U.S. military Analyzing Trump's announcement of ceasefire with Houthi rebels in Yemen Helping kids navigate mental health and modern puberty
