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National Geographic
5 days ago
- General
- National Geographic
What was it like to live in Old Babylon?
At its peak, the Old Babylonian Empire rose to be one of the biggest civilizations the world had seen–but what was daily life like? Along with the pioneering legal code of Hammurabi, a wealth of tablets provide rich details on how Babylonians settled disputes, managed family life, and celebrated festivals. MIGHTY BABYLON This rendering of Babylon is dominated by the Etemenanki ziggurat as it would have looked during the sixth century B.C. Believed by some to be the Tower of Babel described in the Bible, the ziggurat had been rebuilt many times over the centuries. The original structure was first built in the 18th century B.C., during the time of King Hammurabi who laid the foundation of Babylon's future greatness. JEAN-CLAUDE GOLVIN, MUSEUM OF ANCIENT ARLES The city of Babylon, flanking the Euphrates River in Lower Mesopotamia, reached the zenith of its early age during the reign of King Hammurabi (r.1792-1750 B.C.). Under his rule, the capital of the Babylonian empire was consolidated as a cosmopolitan hub, attracting migrants from across the region. The Empire as a whole had been gaining power and prestige during the Old Babylonian Empire (1894–1595 B.C.), but Hammurabi went on to take over large swaths of territory in Mesopotamia, conquering far flung cities such as Ur, Eshnunna, Assur, Nineveh, and Tuttul. As Hammurabi's reach extended, much of the kingdom flourished—culturally, economically, socially, and in religion— especially in the capital, Babylon. A PRAYER FOR THE KING Made in the 18th century B.C., this copper statuette of a praying figure is dedicated to the god Amurru. An inscription pleads for the protection of Hammurabi, king of Babylon. Daily life, family, and divorce The thousands of cuneiform texts that survive from this time provide fascinating glimpses into the lives of Babylonians. They record the exploits of kings, military clashes, diplomatic embassies, and legal codes. They also offer tantalizing insights into the everyday lives of the people of Mesopotamia: their regular chores, what worried them, how they thought about family, and what they bought and sold. These surprisingly detailed documents, many in the form of clay tablets, show that almost 4,000 years ago Babylonian society was not so different from our own. The family was the center point around which the whole community was structured. The typical house where a Babylonian family lived had two or three rooms, sometimes more, which were built around an open courtyard. Some rooms must have been used as bedrooms, but there's evidence to suggest that others served as workshops or stores. The wealthiest homes had extra amenities, such as bathrooms, rooms with metal security systems for guarding precious objects, and rooms that could serve as religious sanctuaries. SEAL OF THE GODS This seal was made around the time of Hammurabi of Babylon's reign in the early second millennium B.C. Families in Babylon were generally based on a monogamous marriage. Polygamy was allowed by law but only in specific situations; for example, if the first wife didn't produce a child or in cases such as a merchant who resided in another town for a long time and contracted a second marriage there. Sometimes the marriage agreement—known as rikistu in Akkadian, a word that also applied to other types of contracts—was made in writing, stipulating details such as the dowry the bride's family should offer. In this society, marriage did not have to be forever, and could be revoked through divorce. Engagements could also be broken off in the betrothal phase. Several Babylonian texts show how these breakups were carried out. In the language of the day it was called 'cutting the hem.' (Think customer service is bad now? Read this 4,000-year-old complaint letter) In one text from the 18th century B.C., a man called Aham-nirši wants to dissolve his upcoming marriage. The text reads as follows: 'In the presence of these witnesses, they questioned Aham-nirši: 'Is this woman (still to be considered) your wife?' He declared: '(You can) hang me on a peg, yea dismember me—I will not stay married (to her)!' Thus he said. They questioned his wife and she answered: 'I (still) love my husband.' Thus she answered. He, however, refused. He knotted up her hem and cut it off.' IMPOSING LAW This stela, inscribed with 282 laws, contains the legal code promulgated by Hammurabi, king of Babylon. The relief above the text depicts Hammurabi standing before the god of justice, Shamash. Louvre Museum, Paris. THE CODE OF HAMMURABI, inscribed on a stela originally placed in the temple of Marduk in Babylon in the 18th century B.C., is the most iconic legal compendium from Mesopotamia. In the prologue, the king justifies his role as lawmaker: When Anu . . . and Bel . . . assigned to Marduk . . . dominion over earthly man, and made him great . . . they called Babylon by his illustrious name, made it great on earth, and founded an everlasting kingdom in it, whose foundations are laid so solidly as those of heaven and earth; then Anu and Bel called by name me, Hammurabi . . . to bring about the rule of righteousness in the land, to destroy the wicked and the evildoers, so that the strong should not harm the weak. Adoption and heirs Having children was seen as the fundamental objective of marriage, and there were protocols if a couple could not have children for any reason. They were conscious that the womb played an essential role in reproduction. The Babylonian epic called Atrahasis, about the creation of humans and the Great Flood, includes the line 'the womb was open and making babies.' Medicinal texts have survived that show the Babylonians used certain herbs, amulets, or even magical arts to try to overcome sterility. ROYAL JUSTICE A supplicant pleads before King Hammurabi of Babylon, who sits enthroned. This 20th-century illustration is by Robert Thom. Couples without biological children also had the possibility of adopting one, either as a baby, an older child, or a teenager. The phenomenon of adoption must have been relatively common, given the large number of texts on adoption that endured. By means of this act, a bond of legal filiation was created between adopter and adoptee, analogous to biological filiation. One text states that: 'Yasirum and Ama-Suen have taken as their son a suckling baby, called Ili-awili, the son of Ayartum, from Ayartum, his mother, and Erištum, her husband.' There were many reasons to carry out an adoption: to obtain an heir, or an apprentice, or a person to take care of the adoptive parents in old age. Having someone to take care of funeral rites was another reason for couples to adopt. As for the adoptee, they might gain by inheriting an estate, learning a trade or, in the case of young children, being raised from infancy. Adoptions in which a child became an apprentice to their adoptive father is attested to in numerous documents. A street in ancient Babylon reimagined in a late 20th-century painting by Balage Balogh. BALAGE BALOGH/ SCALA, FLORENCE EVIDENCE ON HOW various Mesopotamians regarded abortion produces a mixed picture. One surviving medical text from the region seems to accept the practice, giving instructions for how a termination should be performed. It is addressed to: 'A pregnant woman, so that her fruit [the fetus] is expelled.' It goes on to list eight plants that should be crushed, mixed with wine and drunk on an empty stomach. However, the Middle Assyrian Laws, from the 14th century B.C., establish a terrible punishment for any woman who makes the decision to abort: 'If a woman aborts her fetus by her own action and they then prove the charges against her and find her guilty, they shall impale her, they shall not bury her. If she dies as a result of aborting her fetus, they shall impale her, they shall not bury her.' For example, a tablet dating to the 15th century B.C. and found in Nuzi, a city in northern Mesopotamia, reads: 'Huitilla, son of Warteya, has given his son Naniya in adoption to Tirwiya, servant of Enna-mati. Tirwiya shall provide Naniya with a wife and train him in the weaver's trade . . . If Tirwiya fails to train Naniya in the weaver's trade, Huitilla may in such circumstances take back his son Naniya.' Lithuania's timeless city Artisans and merchants It was normal in Babylon for young men to be trained in a trade at home, usually following in the footsteps of their father. There are dozens of certified cases of scribes, priests, and craftsmen who passed their profession down several generations. On other occasions, and by means of an apprenticeship contract, a recognized professional took on an apprentice in order to train them, as in the previous example where the weaver Tirwiya took on Naniya as both apprentice and adoptive son. (Age-old secrets revealed from the world's first metropolises) The Babylonians valued craftsmanship. In the region of Sumer (in Lower Mesopotamia, in southern Iraq), most of the craftsmen and merchants were linked to the institutions of the palace and the temple. By contrast, in King Hammurabi's Babylon, there's evidence of many of these individuals working privately. Archaeologists have retrieved thousands of clay tablets that record deliveries (usually of barley) being made to specific individuals and often indicating their profession. For example, the tablets mention gardeners, blacksmiths, bakers, and builders. Many people, generally women, children, and enslaved people, worked in trades related to the textile industry, such as weaving, carding (disentangling and preparing fibers), or fulling (cleansing and increasing a woven cloth's thickness). The goods they produced were sold throughout Mesopotamia by merchants following well-established trading routes. Improved infrastructure and irrigation, trade, and later, military expansion all contributed to providing the empire with wealth. OFFERINGS This engraved tablet from Babylon shows gods and people making offerings. 18th century B.C., Louvre, Paris. The strength of Babylonian society came from numerous aspects, including its centralized government, diplomacy, and laws. The Code of Hammurabi—282 laws spread throughout the empire—established a legal system, social order, economic rules, laws for women, punishments, and more. There was no shortage of occasions to resort to justice. These could be disputes over property, inheritance conflicts, theft, or divorce. Judges were respected for their in-depth knowledge of the legal codes and of the appropriate punishments for breaking those codes. Several judges could be present at a trial; in fact, the more judges there were, the greater the sense of legitimacy for the parties involved. All trials were conducted pro se, with the litigants representing themselves; professional lawyers didn't exist in Babylonia. Lawsuits over serious cases were dealt with by judges linked to the monarchy. A document from the 18th century B.C. records how three people who sued a woman named Sumu-la-ilu over the ownership of a house and orchards had their case heard by the king himself. 'They came before the king for litigation. The king [judged] the case of the woman Sumu-la-ilu. Henceforth, whoever [shall bring] a lawsuit shall pay 200 [shekels] of silver.' (The ancient empire that civilization forgot) Lovers of leisure Entertainment would have been a fundamental part of daily life for ancient Babylonians. There's evidence that they played instruments, such as the flute, and practiced dance. In addition to musicians and dancers, there were other professional entertainers, including singers, snake charmers, acrobats, and bear handlers. They played games too, one of the most popular being dice for which they used the cube-shaped ankle bones of animals. These dice could also be used to predict the future when thrown on clay tablets marked with signs of the zodiac. RELAXING IN BABYLON A wealthy Babylonian family in the garden of their mansion, as depicted in a 20th-century illustration. The Babylonians took part in religious festivals and processions, including the Akitu, or New Year's festival, which held great importance. This festival celebrated Marduk, primary deity of the Babylonian pantheon and commemorated his victory over the goddess Tiamat. The Akitu was a moment to unite heaven and earth, rich and poor, gods and ordinary people. This societal foundation laid in the old empire paved the way for Babylon to become a jewel of the ancient world. A detail from an illustration of a relief at Nimrud depicting the god Marduk as a dragon. Ninth century B.C., Louvre Museum, Paris. BABYLON'S NEW YEAR'S festival, Akitu, had its roots in an ancient ritual from the third millennium B.C. related to barley. It took place around March and April. A key moment came when the Enuma Elish creation epic was read aloud in the House of the New Year, situated north of Babylon. This ancient text tells how the god Marduk took the body of his enemy, the goddess Tiamat, and split it in two to create the heavens and the earth. A statue of Nabû, son of the supreme god Marduk, was brought from the nearby city of Borsippa; later all the ritual statues were paraded before the joyous populace. The festival was observed in the region for over a millennium, until as late as the third century A.D. This story appeared in the July/August 2025 issue of National Geographic History magazine.
Shafaq News
19-07-2025
- Business
- Shafaq News
The Largest ever: 30 billion Dinars allocated to revive Kirkuk's identity
Shafaq News – Kirkuk The Kirkuk Citadel and the Ottoman-era Qishla, two of the city's most prominent historical landmarks, are set to undergo the largest restoration project in Kirkuk's history, the Directorate of Antiquities and Heritage announced on Friday. The project, backed by 30 billion Iraqi dinars (approximately $20 million) in government funding, is part of a broader effort to preserve the city's cultural identity and boost its tourism sector. The Kirkuk Citadel is one of the oldest archaeological sites in northern Iraq, with a history spanning over 3,000 years and linked to civilizations such as the Assyrians, Babylonians, Sasanians, and Ottomans. The Qishla, built during the Ottoman period as a military and administrative center, still retains much of its architectural character despite years of neglect. Raaed Akla al-Obaidi, director of the Antiquities Department in Kirkuk, told Shafaq News that the project follows official approvals from the Ministry of Culture, Tourism, and Antiquities. The ministry emphasized that renovation work must be handled by a specialized firm with solid experience in restoring historical structures to ensure the preservation of the Citadel's original arches, decorations, and architectural details. Obaidi noted that companies from Turkiye, Iraq, and Egypt have submitted bids for the restoration work. A technical committee will review these proposals and select the most suitable according to international heritage preservation standards. The directorate has completed all technical and engineering assessments for the Qishla building and submitted them to the ministry in Baghdad to allocate the necessary funds. The project's financing will come from emergency allocations, as confirmed by the Minister of Culture in recent meetings with provincial heritage officials. 'All technical and administrative requirements for the Citadel's rehabilitation have also been completed,' Obaidi said. The restoration will include key landmarks within the complex, such as the church, mosques, religious schools, traditional houses, gates, fortress walls, and the 'Green Dome.' According to recent assessments, these structures require between 40% to 70% restoration work. Sarmad Mohammed Jameel, head of Kirkuk's Tourism Directorate, told Shafaq News that the Citadel and the Qishla are not merely old stone buildings but represent the cultural and historical identity of Kirkuk, reflecting the legacy of successive civilizations from the Sumerians and Assyrians to the Ottomans. He added that the project's success would directly support the local tourism industry by attracting visitors from across Iraq and abroad. Jameel said, 'Revitalizing these heritage landmarks would help restore Kirkuk's historic stature and pave the way for cultural festivals, art exhibitions, and traditional markets within the Citadel and Qishla.'These developments are expected to stimulate the local economy and generate new job opportunities. Ali Shakir, a historian and academic, told Shafaq News that the Citadel and Qishla are central to the city's collective memory. Restoring them according to international standards, he said, could help Kirkuk regain some of its lost cultural vibrancy. He emphasized that these landmarks are not 'silent stones' but living testimonies to the coexistence of Kirkuk's ethnic and religious communities. Shakir added that the Qishla, with its distinct Ottoman architecture, could be repurposed into a cultural center, museum, or tourist site that connects younger generations to their city's past, helping raise public awareness about the importance of preserving heritage.
Scientific American
18-07-2025
- Science
- Scientific American
This Number System Beats Binary, But Most Computers Can't Use It
The Babylonians used separate combinations of two symbols to represent every single number from 1 to 59. That sounds pretty confusing, doesn't it? Our decimal system seems simple by comparison, with just 10 digits from 0 to 9 to express every number imaginable. Computers need only two digits: 0 and 1. But that binary system is not the only option for these machines. In the past, experts developed calculating machines that worked with three digits, a ternary system, that they hoped would allow for more efficient information processing. Yet today ternary computers are just hobby projects. How did this come to be? In principle, any number can be represented by any number system, whether the latter be base 10, base 60, base 3 or base 2. The math works perfectly in each case. On supporting science journalism If you're enjoying this article, consider supporting our award-winning journalism by subscribing. By purchasing a subscription you are helping to ensure the future of impactful stories about the discoveries and ideas shaping our world today. In the usual decimal system, the number 17 (that is, a 1 followed by a 7) indicates that you have to calculate 10 + 7 × 1 (17 = 1 × 10 + 7 × 1). If you want to express 17 in base 3, it looks like this: 17 10 = 1 × 3 2 + 2 × 3 1 + 2 × 3 0 = 122 3. (The lower numbers symbolize the base that is used.) In binary notation, the number is 17 10 = 1 × 2 4 + 0 × 2 3 + 0 × 2 2 + 0 × 2 1 + 1 × 2 0 = 10,001 2. Comparing these numbers, the familiar decimal notation is the most efficient by far: only two digits are needed to write down 17, which could be advantageous for a computer. On the other hand, the machine would have to work with a base of 10 different digits, which is problematic in practice. In conventional computers, the 0's and 1's are represented by the state of a particular piece of electrical hardware, such as a capacitor or transistor. Many of these devices simply translate a state—such as turning the transistor on or off—into either a 0 or 1 in a way that does not support the gradations or degrees that one would require for base 10 computing. Imagine designing a switch that had 10 different positions between the on and off state—this approach would get complicated quickly. For practical reasons, decimal notation can therefore be ruled out as a basis for a computer. There are too many digits. But is there a better number system for information processing than the binary system that is ubiquitous today? The Perfect Basis for Computers To answer that question, you have to find a compromise between the representation length l of a number n and the number b of digits used in a base. To do this, you can look at the product of the two quantities, b × l, and ask yourself for which base this is the smallest. The length of a number n represented by the base b corresponds approximately to the quotient log(n) / log(b). The question is therefore: For which base b is the product b × log(n) / log(b) smallest? If you remember your school days, you may still know how to calculate the optimum value of b: You derive the named product in terms of b, set it equal to zero and then solve the equation for b. Alternatively, you can draw the equation—that is y = b × [log(n) / log(b)]—on a piece of paper and identify the point on the curve that is closest to the x -axis. Whichever method you choose, assuming you don't make a mistake, the optimum value for b = e ≈ 2.718, Euler's number. An irrational result may seem confusing at first glance. How can you construct a number system for a base that is irrational? If you consider all numbers, including irrational values such as pi (π ), then a number system with base e may have advantages. But if you want to represent integers such as 1, 2 or 3 in this way, it quickly becomes complicated. That's why it makes sense to round Euler's number: so among the integers, 3 seems to be the optimal base to process information. Ternary System: In Perfect Balance A number system with three digits such as 0, 1 and 2 is known as a ternary system. This, however, can also be represented in what mathematicians consider a more balanced way using the three numbers –1, 0 and 1. In this 'balanced ternary' system, the number 17 10 looks like this: 17 10 = 1 × 3 3 + (–1) × 3 2 + 0 × 3 1 + (–1) × 3 0 = 1(–1)0(–1) Experts found the balanced ternary system particularly attractive because of its symmetry. For example, in the second volume of his book series The Art of Computer Programming, computer scientist Donald E. Knuth described it as 'the prettiest number system of all.' The ternary system is not only inspiring in theory. In 1840 English inventor Thomas Fowler built a calculating machine that worked with the balanced ternary system, a mechanical computer that calculates with the numbers –1, 0 and 1. It used a different logic than today's computers. If you combine two digits in the ternary system, you can not only get 0 or 1 (which are often equated with true or false in the binary system) but also a third result. Some calculations can be shortened as a result: for example, if you want to compare two numbers with each other, you can use the ternary system to find out in just one step whether one number is smaller, larger or equal to the other. In the binary system, on the other hand, two calculation steps are required: first you check whether they are different and then which one is larger or smaller. A Ternary Computer behind the Iron Curtain Fowler's mechanical device was not the only computer to count to three. At the beginning of the cold war, the Soviet Union tried to develop its first electronic computers. Because it was very difficult to get hold of transistors (the electronic components on which conventional computers are based), the Soviets looked for other options to achieve their goal. In 1958 the first electronic ternary computer, called Setun, was built at Moscow State University. It used magnetic cores and diodes to process information in ternary digits, or 'trits.' Over the years, around 50 Setun computers were produced. But ternary computers did not catch on, in part because of the hardware and existing conventions. It is difficult to code electronic components with three different states. With Setun, the researchers needed to use two magnetic components per trit—but had they worked in binary, they could have encoded twice as many bits with these components. All computers now work with transistors. These have two inputs through which either current can flow (encoding a 1) or not (a 0) and an output that either passes on current (a 1) or not (a 0). By cleverly connecting transistors together, logic gates can be built to perform all calculable operations. Many hobbyists develop ternary computers—but these are entirely for fun. Because the ternary machines and binary computers process completely different digits and use different logic, the two cannot be connected. That is somehow a pity, I think, even if a ternary computer could do no more than conventional devices.
Daily Mirror
17-07-2025
- Entertainment
- Daily Mirror
World's oldest map shows secrets from 3,000 years ago with Babylon at centre
The Babylonian map is known as the Imago Mundi and holds the title of the oldest known map in the world as it shows the world as the ancient Babylonians knew it The world's oldest map has been deciphering secrets from 3,000 years ago, shedding light on how our forebears perceived their surroundings. Dubbed the Imago Mundi, this Babylonian artefact is recognised as the most ancient map known to us, placing Babylon at the heart of the world. Unearthed in Sippar, Iraq, the clay tablet depicts a round Earth, adorned with cuneiform script and symbolic illustrations. Dr Irving Finkel of the British Museum revealed in a museum YouTube video: "The ancient Babylonian map has given us a tremendous insight into many aspects of Mesopotamian thinking. "It's also a triumphant demonstration of what happens when you have a very small, totally uninformative and useless fragment of dead boring writing that no one can understand and you join it onto something in the collection which is much bigger and a whole new adventure begins all over again", reports the Express. On its flip side, the tablet doubles as a travel guide, hinting at what explorers might face, including a nod to a craft built to survive the Great Flood. Dr. Finkel remarked that the tablet features a "giant vessel," often associated with the remnants of an enormous ship. Scholars have mapped a journey to "Urartu," possibly corresponding with the peak where Noah's Ark is believed to have come to rest. This may indicate that the Babylonians may have had their own rendition of the flood narrative. According to Dr. Finkel, the tablet's inscriptions recount astronomical events and predictions, and the map is believed to depict the entire "known world" of that time. The Imago Mundi illustrates Babylonian beliefs about geography and mythical creatures, with the ancients convinced these beings roamed various lands. Featured on the tablet are fantastical beings such as a scorpion-man, a sea serpent, a bull-man, and a winged horse. Another striking element is the "Bitter River," symbolised by a double ring surrounding Mesopotamia, representing the boundary of the known world. The inscriptions further detail astronomical events and predictions, highlighting the Babylonians' sophisticated grasp of the heavens. Since its unearthing in Iraq in 1988, the Imago Mundi has enthralled academics and is presently housed at the British Museum.
Times
10-07-2025
- Entertainment
- Times
Would you let the stars dictate where you live?
Despite living in an age in which GPS tracks our every move and most of us have a map available at the touch of a screen, a growing number of people are turning to a different guide for directions: the cosmos. Astrocartography, a practice combining geography and astrology, claims to map the world for a person based on the moment they were born, offering guidance on where to go on holiday and even where to live. Developed in its modern form by the American astrologer Jim Lewis in the 1970s, at the root of the concept, which is sometimes called locational astrology, is the theory that by relocating to or spending time in areas that match with favourable planetary lines, we could tap into positive energies. • The Indian mothers paying for C-sections under 'lucky' stars 'Essentially it's a map based on the moment you took your first breath, which shows you your most powerful locations in the world,' says Helena Woods, a former actress from New York who is now an astrology influencer living in Australia. She charges $550 for an initial one-hour astrocartography reading. The idea of celestial influence on Earthly locales isn't new. Ancient civilisations, including the Babylonians and Egyptians, relied on observing the stars to make decisions about agriculture, architecture and governance. In recent years astrocartography has experienced a resurgence, particularly on social media, carving out a niche for itself within the reportedly $2.2 billion global industry that is astrology. On platforms such as Instagram and TikTok, astrologers including Hagan Fox (280K followers on Instagram) and Chani Nicholas (630K followers on Instagram) share practical tips. The latter, who counts the singer Lizzo among her fans, also ties locational astrology to broader themes of identity and social justice. Meanwhile the podcast host and astrologist Chris Brennan invites specialists to unpack the practice in depth on The Astrology Podcast (240K subscribers on YouTube). • Read more luxury reviews, advice and insights from our experts The rise of remote work and digital nomadism has fuelled interest as people explore where in the world they may feel happiest. 'I've helped people completely uproot their lives and start over in far-off locations,' Woods says. 'We've all been to cities or towns that feel right [and] others that don't; Astrocartography helps explain these place-based attractions,' says Clarisse Monahan, a Goldman Sachs analyst turned professional astrologer based near Dublin, who charges €220 for an hour of astrocartography. 'It matches us to our hot spots on Earth. Deciding where to live for work or raising a family is probably one of the biggest decisions you make in life.' On a less life-changing note, some people turn to astrocartography to decide the best place and time to take a holiday. 'For example, they might want to go to Paris on their Venus line in order to find some romance,' Monahan, who is also Soho House's resident astrologer, says. • Tick, tick, hiss — watches for the year of the snake Woods and Monahan offer single or multiple astrocartography sessions for clients depending on the questions they have, and Woods offers masterclasses and workshops. Both have also written or are writing books on the subject. As for the next frontier in the astrology world? How about astroherbalism, which combines astrology and plant medicine to map planets and signs on to herbs for emotional healing? Back to the future indeed.
