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The Wire
3 days ago
- General
- The Wire
India's Little-Known Role in African Slave Trade
Slave Dealers and Slaves Zanzibar. Photo: Wikimedia commons Real journalism holds power accountable Since 2015, The Wire has done just that. But we can continue only with your support. Contribute Now The role of African slaves in India and the participation of Indians in slave administration has, until recently, received little attention. Africans were not the first people enslaved in India, but Arab traders trafficked them to the subcontinent as early as the 6th century CE. One of the first known cases involved an Ethiopian, Jamal ud-Din Yaqut, who became Master of the Royal Stables in Delhi in 1236. By the 14th century, African slave trading grew, as Indian authorities exploited maritime networks linking Africa and India. Indian goods were highly prized in Africa and were exchanged for gold, ivory and Ethiopian slaves. Trade in slaves was one of several exchanges connecting the Indian subcontinent with East Africa, creating a diverse and interconnected commercial system that thrived for centuries. Arab dhows crossed the Indian Ocean in regular monsoon-driven voyages, carrying slaves, spices, textiles and metals. These maritime routes helped entrench African presence along India's coastal cities, such as Surat, Calicut and Cochin, which functioned as critical nodes in this transoceanic slave network. An eyewitness The diversity of African arrivals also complicates the simplistic binary of slave and free. Some Africans arrived as merchants or seafarers in their own right, contributing to the cosmopolitan character of port cities like Cambay and Bharuch. The famed Berber traveller Ibn Battuta, who was born in Tangier in 1304, journeyed extensively across vast parts of Asia and Africa in the 14th century. He encountered thousands of African slaves during his travels, observing Abyssinian guards, shipmen, and warriors deployed across the subcontinent. It was during his second journey that Ibn Battuta made his way across the Indian subcontinent, the Maldives, Sri Lanka and China, before returning to North Africa. During his time in India, he came across Habashis (as the Ethiopian slaves were known) distributed throughout the subcontinent, from northern India to Ceylon. They were employed primarily as guards or men-at-arms on land or at sea. In July 1342, for example, he was south-east of Delhi, in the town of Allapur in Uttar Pradesh: 'The governor of Alabur [Allapur] was the Abyssinian Badr, a slave of the sultan's, a man whose bravery passed into a proverb. He was continually making raids on the infidels alone and single handed, killing and taking captive, so that his fame spread far and wide and the infidels went in fear of him. He was tall and corpulent, and used to eat a whole sheep at a meal, and I was told that after eating he would drink about a pound and a half of ghee, following the custom of the Abyssinians in their own country.' Ibn Battuta encountered African slaves in the southern Indian city called Qandahar (today the village of Ghandar on the mouth of the Dhandar river in Gujarat), where he describes meeting Ibrahim, the owner of six ships. 'We embarked on a ship belonging to Ibrahim … called al-Jagir. On this ship we put seventy of the horses of the sultan's present …[Ibrahim] sent his son with us on a ship called al-Uqayri, which resembles a galley, but is rather broader; it has sixty oars and is covered with a roof during battle in order to protect the rowers from arrows and stones. I myself went on board al-Jagir, which had a complement of fifty rowers and fifty Abyssinian men-at-arms. These latter are the guarantors of safety on the Indian Ocean; let there be but one of them on a ship and it will be avoided by the Indian pirates and idolaters.' Ibn Battuta then travelled to Colombo in Ceylon (Sri Lanka), where he again found the ruler guarded by 'about five hundred Abyssinians.' When Ibn Battuta arrived in the Indian port of Calicut he saw a fleet of huge Chinese junks, each with four decks carrying up to 1,000 troops on board. The ships were highly sophisticated, with sailors having their wives and slave-girls living in their cabins, which were complete with latrines. Security was – once more – provided by Africans. 'The owner's factor [or agent] on board ship is like a great amir. When he goes on shore he is preceded by archers and Abyssinians with javelins, swords, drums, bugles and trumpets.' The African presence in India, particularly in military contexts, also had a psychological and symbolic dimension. Africans were often perceived as loyal, physically strong, and strategically useful because they were outside traditional kinship networks. This made them ideal as bodyguards, palace guards, and elite soldiers, as their loyalty was presumed to lie solely with their patron. Their position within Indian courts and armies was sometimes precarious, but it could also be a pathway to influence and even power. Importantly, African troops played a stabilizing role in many of India's volatile princely states, serving as both protectors and enforcers, their foreign origins ensuring loyalty that transcended local rivalries. African slaves become rulers African slaves primarily served as troops. Some gained prominence – Bengal's Rukh-ud-din Barbak reportedly maintained an Ethiopian army of 8,000, his son expanding it to 20,000. Others, like Malik Ambar, rose even further. Malik Amber. Photo: Wikimedia commons. Born in Harangue, Ethiopia, Ambar was enslaved and brought to Baghdad, then India. He served under Chengiz Khan, a former Ethiopian slave turned statesman. Freed after his master's death, Ambar joined the military of various Indian rulers. By the 1590s, he led a cavalry force in Ahmednagar and resisted Mughal incursions using guerrilla tactics. He backed a new sultan and married his daughter into the royal family, consolidating his influence. Ambar's military campaigns were often characterized by their strategic use of terrain and speed, making his forces elusive and difficult for the Mughal armies to counter effectively. As regent, Ambar implemented reforms and infrastructure projects, including a water system still in use today. He repeatedly thwarted Mughal forces – even Emperor Jahangir, who had insulted Ambar racially. Jahangir's frustration with Ambar is evident in his pejorative references, calling him 'the black-faced one' or 'the crafty one..' but these slights ultimately gave way to reluctant admiration. In his official memoir, the Emperor Jahangir reversed his assessment of his opponent, declaring that although a slave, Ambar was nonetheless 'an able man. In warfare, in command, in sound judgement, and in administration he had no rival or equal…. He maintained his exalted position to the end of his life and closed his career in honour. History records no other instance of an Abyssinian slave arriving at such eminence.' Ambar's political acumen extended beyond the battlefield. He maintained a complex network of alliances with other regional powers and made use of marriage diplomacy to strengthen his hold over Ahmednagar. He also sought to establish a bureaucratic apparatus that could outlast him, introducing land reforms and encouraging the cultivation of previously unproductive areas. These measures helped secure resources for his military campaigns and built a stronger economic base for the sultanate. He was equally committed to cultural patronage, commissioning buildings and supporting learning, thereby carving a legacy that extended beyond war. He was also instrumental in defending Deccan autonomy against the Mughal encroachment. Ambar's tactics of asymmetrical warfare and his ability to mobilise diverse ethnic groups under his command contributed to his enduring reputation as one of India's great military innovators. Ambar died in 1626. Though his son surrendered Ahmednagar to the Mughals in 1633, Ambar's transformation from slave to kingmaker remains remarkable. Between 1486 and 1493 alone, four Ethiopian commanders rose to rule Indian states. Their stories highlight how military slavery in India differed from other parts of the world: rather than being a terminal condition, it could provide upward mobility, status, and, in rare cases, sovereignty. The unique context of Indo-African relations, especially within Islamic polities, often facilitated the elevation of capable individuals, regardless of origin. Indians administer the slave trade India's involvement in African slavery extended abroad. Indian merchants were key players in the Omani-led East African slave trade. Oman, lacking natural resources, relied on trade and enslaved labour. From the 1st century CE, Omanis traded along the Swahili coast, importing slaves – especially light-skinned women – for domestic service. Many of these slaves were destined for service in elite households, as concubines, wet nurses, or servants. The trade was driven by the high demand for African labour and the prestige associated with owning African slaves, especially among the merchant elite. Indian traders, especially in Muscat and later Zanzibar, dominated commerce in coffee and pearls, served as bankers, and helped administer the slave trade. After the Portuguese were ousted from Muscat in 1650, Oman expanded its African holdings. Under Sultan Said bin Sultan (r. 1804–1856), Zanzibar became the new capital, centred on clove plantations worked by slaves. The move was a calculated effort to align the Omani economy with the booming global demand for spices. Indian merchants followed, forming a major commercial presence along the coast. They managed customs, extended loans, and owned slave-run plantations. The Indian community also maintained close ties with the Omani court, and some Indian families wielded significant political influence. Although Britain abolished slavery in 1833, enforcement was slow. By 1860, over 8,000 slaves owned by Indians were officially freed in Zanzibar – despite British law having banned the practice decades earlier. This underlines the ambivalence of colonial authorities, who were often reluctant to disrupt local economies and elite interests. In some instances, Indian-owned plantations were larger and more profitable than those of their Arab counterparts. Wealthy Indian families invested heavily in infrastructure and trade networks, further entrenching the institution of slavery in the region. The Indian community in Zanzibar and East Africa often maintained cultural and commercial links with Gujarat and Bombay, reinforcing the transoceanic dimensions of this trade. Many Indian-run firms operating in East Africa kept detailed records and accounts of their transactions, making it clear that slavery was not a peripheral or incidental activity, but an integral component of their economic strategies. The entanglement of Indians in the East African slave trade was not limited to merchants alone. Clerks, shipbuilders, and middlemen were all complicit in the system. Some Indians served as slave overseers or worked in ports where captured Africans were processed and sold. Sir Bartle Frere, the British governor of Bombay who visited Zanzibar in 1873, remarked that 'Throughout the Zanzibar coastline … all banking and mortgage business passes through Indian hands. Hardly a single loan can be negotiated, a mortgage effected, or a bill cashed without Indian agency.' This complicity is rarely acknowledged today, yet it is essential for understanding the full scope of the Indian Ocean slave trade. The legacy today While slavery officially ended, its legacy lingered. In India, the Sidis – descendants of African slaves – were gradually integrated. Janjira and Sachin, princely states ruled by Sidis, existed until Indian independence in 1947. The rulers of these states, though relatively minor in comparison to larger princely territories, held real power and maintained their autonomy under British indirect rule. Their courts often mirrored Indian traditions, but also retained distinct African elements, such as Sidi drumming and Swahili phrases in ceremonial contexts. The Sidi community itself is diverse, with roots tracing back to different waves of African migration and enslavement. While some Sidis were brought as slaves, others arrived as soldiers, traders, or musicians. The integration process varied regionally: in Gujarat, for instance, Sidis maintained a distinct identity, while in other parts of India, they assimilated more fully into local populations. Oral histories, religious rituals, and festivals continue to reflect the syncretic nature of their heritage, blending African, Islamic, and Hindu influences. Today, around 100,000 Sidis live in Gujarat, Karnataka and other regions of India. Many retain Swahili musical traditions. Sidi drumming and dance performances are popular in some areas and have gained recognition in India's cultural landscape. In Pakistan, a further 150,000 Sidis reside, often in poverty and facing racial discrimination. Their marginalisation reflects the lasting scars of a long and often overlooked history. Detail of Jamal-ud-Din Yaqut from a miniature painting of Razia Sultana holding court (durbar) with identifying inscriptions, by Gulam Ali Khan, circa 19th century. Photo: Wikimedia commons. Media depictions and social stigma frequently reinforce harmful stereotypes, further limiting access to opportunities. Yaqoob Qambrani, President of the Pakistan Sheedi Ittehad, complained that many opportunities are closed to them because of discrimination in education and work. 'In Qambrani's views, the deep-rooted culture of blaming and shaming 'black-face' in Pakistan has held them in chains of associated stereotypes. Sheedis are portrayed as '…the evils, thieves and unwanted. For instance, when anyone from our community boards a public transport bus, everyone else tries to keep their distance. We are not blind to watch how others look and treat us', Qambrani declared. Despite centuries of presence, many Sidis still struggle with access to education, employment, and healthcare. Activists have called for affirmative action and greater government recognition of their unique heritage. In recent years, Sidi youth have increasingly used digital platforms to share their stories and celebrate their culture, forging transnational ties with African-descended communities in the diaspora. Projects linking Sidis with African communities in Brazil and East Africa have fostered renewed interest in shared histories and solidarity movements. Africa's entangled history with South Asia – spanning commerce, migration, and enslavement – deserves greater attention. From the rise of figures like Malik Ambar to the quiet endurance of Sidi communities, the legacy of African presence in India remains potent and deeply human. As scholarship expands and awareness grows, the contributions and struggles of Africans in South Asia are beginning to receive the recognition they deserve. This history is not merely a footnote – it is a vital part of the global story of movement, power, and resistance. The shared legacy of the Indian Ocean world – connecting Mombasa, Mumbai, Muscat, and beyond – offers a powerful lens through which to explore themes of agency, adaptation and survival. Understanding these connections not only enriches our knowledge of the past but also challenges us to confront the enduring legacies of racism, marginalisation, and inequality in our present world. Martin Plaut is the author of Unbroken Chains: A 5,000-Year History of African Enslavement, to be published by Hurst, August 2025
Saudi Gazette
6 days ago
- Saudi Gazette
Hadiyah Castle served pilgrims as a key stop and water source
Saudi Gazette report ALULA — Overlooking the northern part of Madinah, Hadiya Castle stands from a high vantage point between Wadi al-Tabaq and Wadi Khaybar. It embodies a rich historical legacy that tells the story of centuries of pilgrims and traders traveling from the Levant to Makkah. The archaeological site of Hadiyah Castle is one of the most prominent strategic points on the Levantine Hajj Route. It is likely that it was used as a station for pilgrims beginning in the pre-Islamic era, given its direct role in securing the route and providing comfort and supplies to caravans heading to Makkah. This made it a major transit point on this historic route. The castle was built in a strategic area overlooking a pond designated for collecting rainwater, making it an important source of water for pilgrims and a center for supplying them with provisions. The castle includes four defensive towers at its corners, three of which still stand, while the fourth has been affected by the effects of time. The traveler Ibn Battuta referred to this site in his documented journey in the year 726 AH, describing the location of the castle by saying: 'It is a well of water in a valley where they dig, and water comes out, and on the third day they descend into the holy, noble, and honorable city,' referring to the castle's proximity to Madinah and its pivotal position on the road. Historian and Islamic history researcher Dr. Fouad Al-Maghamsi explained that "Hadiya," located in Wadi Al-Tabaq, enjoys a strategic location between Madinah and Al-Ula, approximately 169 kilometers north of the city. It was a major stop for pilgrims and trade caravans in ancient times, thanks to its convenient location on one of the historical stated that the site gained additional importance at the beginning of the twentieth century with the launch of the railway line, when an official station called "Hadiyah" was established as part of a series of major stations along this vital stretch.
Sharjah 24
21-05-2025
- Sharjah 24
Exhibition at HoW showcases history of geography, cartography
13 centuries of exploration The exhibition showcases 13 centuries of exploration through the manuscripts and books of renowned Muslim explorers who traveled across vast distances, circumnavigating the seas; driven by an insatiable curiosity and a passion for discovery and knowledge. On a journey that traces back the evolution of geography and cartography, visitors will be able to view rare manuscripts, hand-drawn maps and detailed scenes, offering the opportunity to learn about Ibn Battuta's three-decade travels, Ibn Jubayr's diaries that recorded his observations across Jerusalem, Egypt, Hijaz, Najd, and Iraq; among others. The exhibition also explores Al-Yaqoubi's geographical perceptions, and highlights the incredible contributions to navigation by Ibn Majid, who relied on the stars to determine directions on the open seas. The history of cartography A key highlight of the exhibition is a chronological experience that takes visitors to the 12th century AD, showcasing the brilliance of Muslim geographer Al-Sharif Al-Idrisi. His renowned 'Inverted' or South-Oriented Map, which is oriented with the south at the top in line with the prevailing tradition of honouring Mecca as the centre of the world, was not only a geographical and artistic marvel but also an ambitious scientific project commissioned by the Norman King Roger II of Sicily to draw a precise map of the world. It is considered to be one of the most significant cartographic achievements of the medieval ages, given the stunning detail that made it one of the first scientific attempts to map the world on a systematic and methodological basis. The chronological timeline continues through the 14th to 16th centuries, a key period in cartography, marked by a shift from south-up to north-up orientation. The change was influenced by the translation of Ptolemy's 'Geographia', as well as the discoveries of Columbus, Vasco da Gama, and other European explorers. From the 16th to the 19th centuries, the exhibition explores advancements in precise measuring instruments such as telescopes, theodolites, and marine chronometers, highlighting their impact on improving cartographic accuracy. The 20th century saw the new surge of aerial photography, remote sensing technologies and satellite imaging, which provided the first space-based full images of Earth from outer space, and thanks to innovations, digital cartography has become a vital tool for urban planning, environmental monitoring, and global communication. The Third Millennium and the Digital Age At the beginning of the 21st century, Google Earth and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) reflected the pinnacle of modern geography. These tools transformed cartography from eye-witness accounts to the digital world which relies on tools like satellite imagery and LiDAR scanning to provide high-resolution 3D mapping for Earth's surface, in addition to AI technology that enabled AI data processing to offer real-time data analysis. This leap in development created new horizons for global exploration, and transformed geography into a universally accessible resource of knowledge. Google Earth allows users to reorient maps with the south on top, echoing Al-Idrisi's 12th-century 'Inverted' or South-Oriented Map. Exploration has evolved from physical travel to virtual journeys that transcend borders, offering immersive access to the vast expanse of human knowledge. Featuring four sections, namely; 'Journeys in Ink: The Art of Islamic Travel and Geographic Literature'; 'Al-Idrisi: Mapping the World'; 'Navigating the World: Tools of the Trade'; and 'From Scrolls to Screens: Travel and Mapping in the 21st Century'; the exhibition is held in collaboration with Dr. Sultan Al Qasimi Centre, the Sharjah Museums Authority, the Manuscripts House in Sharjah, and the King Faisal Center for Research and Islamic Studies in Saudi Arabia. 'Chapters of Islamic Art: Travelogues' bridges the past and present, proving that curiosity knows no borders, and by highlighting the legacies of Muslim explorers and cartographers, Sharjah's House of Wisdom invites the public to see geography not just as maps, but as a testament to humanity's timeless quest for connection and understanding.
Indian Express
20-05-2025
- Indian Express
Paan: From royal roots to modern delicacy
Paan is a betel leaf wrap with betel nuts, cardamom, fennel, lime paste, and sometimes tobacco. Chewed after meals, it aids digestion and cleanses the palate, with roots tracing back to historical travelers like Ibn Battuta and Marco Polo.
Gulf Today
20-05-2025
- Gulf Today
Sharjah shows scientific genius of Islamic Golden Age
From Arabia to Southern Europe, through the Levant, Egypt and North Africa, eastward to Transoxiana, Sindh and India, Muslim travellers and scholars of the Islamic Golden Age embarked on journeys that transcended mere exploration. Their meticulous records, spanning trade routes, cultural practices, and geographical wonders, laid the foundation for the 'Ilm al-Masalik wa al-Mamalik (Science of Roads and Kingdoms), a pioneering branch of Islamic geography that blended administrative precision with intellectual curiosity. Now, Sharjah's House of Wisdom celebrates this legacy through its exhibition 'Chapters of Islamic Art: Travelogues', running until 5 July 2025. 13 centuries of exploration The exhibition showcases 13 centuries of exploration through the manuscripts and books of renowned Muslim explorers who travelled across vast distances, circumnavigating the seas; driven by an insatiable curiosity and a passion for discovery and knowledge. On a journey that traces back the evolution of geography and cartography, visitors will be able to view rare manuscripts, hand-drawn maps and detailed scenes, offering the opportunity to learn about Ibn Battuta's three-decade travels, Ibn Jubayr's diaries that recorded his observations across Jerusalem, Egypt, Hijaz, Najd, and Iraq; among others. The exhibition also explores Al-Yaqoubi's geographical perceptions, and highlights the incredible contributions to navigation by Ibn Majid, who relied on the stars to determine directions on the open seas. The history of cartography A key highlight of the exhibition is a chronological experience that takes visitors to the 12th century AD, showcasing the brilliance of Muslim geographer Al-Sharif Al-Idrisi. His renowned 'Inverted' or South-Oriented Map, which is oriented with the south at the top in line with the prevailing tradition of honouring Makkah as the centre of the world, was not only a geographical and artistic marvel but also an ambitious scientific project commissioned by the Norman King Roger II of Sicily to draw a precise map of the world. The exhibition also showcases the brilliance of Muslim geographer Al-Sharif Al-Idrisi. It is considered to be one of the most significant cartographic achievements of the medieval ages, given the stunning detail that made it one of the first scientific attempts to map the world on a systematic and methodological chronological timeline continues through the 14th to 16th centuries, a key period in cartography, marked by a shift from south-up to north-up orientation. The change was influenced by the translation of Ptolemy's 'Geographia', as well as the discoveries of Columbus, Vasco da Gama, and other European explorers. From the 16th to the 19th centuries, the exhibition explores advancements in precise measuring instruments such as telescopes, theodolites, and marine chronometers, highlighting their impact on improving cartographic accuracy. The 20th century saw the new surge of aerial photography, remote sensing technologies and satellite imaging, which provided the first space-based full images of Earth from outer space, and thanks to innovations, digital cartography has become a vital tool for urban planning, environmental monitoring, and global communication. The Third Millennium and the Digital Age At the beginning of the 21st century, Google Earth and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) reflected the pinnacle of modern geography. These tools transformed cartography from eye-witness accounts to the digital world which relies on tools like satellite imagery and LiDAR scanning to provide high-resolution 3D mapping for Earth's surface, in addition to AI technology that enabled AI data processing to offer real-time data analysis. This leap in development created new horizons for global exploration, and transformed geography into a universally accessible resource of knowledge. Google Earth allows users to reorient maps with the south on top, echoing Al-Idrisi's 12th-century 'Inverted' or South-Oriented Map. Exploration has evolved from physical travel to virtual journeys that transcend borders, offering immersive access to the vast expanse of human knowledge. Featuring four sections, namely; 'Journeys in Ink: The Art of Islamic Travel and Geographic Literature'; 'Al-Idrisi: Mapping the World'; 'Navigating the World: Tools of the Trade'; and 'From Scrolls to Screens: Travel and Mapping in the 21st Century', the exhibition is held in collaboration with Dr. Sultan Al Qasimi Centre, the Sharjah Museums Authority, the Manuscripts House in Sharjah, and the King Faisal Center for Research and Islamic Studies in Saudi Arabia. 'Chapters of Islamic Art: Travelogues' bridges the past and present, proving that curiosity knows no borders, and by highlighting the legacies of Muslim explorers and cartographers, Sharjah's House of Wisdom invites the public to see geography not just as maps, but as a testament to humanity's timeless quest for connection and understanding.
