Latest news with #RichardFeynman
Daily Maverick
7 days ago
- Science
- Daily Maverick
The building blocks of life — how atoms form in extreme heat
Most of the universe is made up of hydrogen and helium atoms, which came into being after the Big Bang cooled down a little. Heavier atoms are formed during high-energy collisions in stars. How do atoms form? – Joshua (7), Shoreview, Minnesota, US Richard Feynman, a famous theoretical physicist who won the Nobel Prize, said that if he could pass on only one piece of scientific information to future generations, it would be that all things are made of atoms. Understanding how atoms form is a fundamental and important question, since they make up everything with mass. The question of where atoms come from requires a lot of physics to be answered completely – and even then, physicists like me only have good guesses to explain how some atoms are formed. What is an atom? An atom consists of a heavy centre, called the nucleus, made of particles called protons and neutrons. An atom has lighter particles called electrons that you can think of as orbiting the nucleus. The electrons each carry one unit of negative charge, the protons each carry one unit of positive charge, and the neutrons have no charge. An atom has the same number of protons as electrons, so it is neutral − it has no overall charge. Now, most of the atoms in the universe are the two simplest kinds: hydrogen, which has one proton, zero neutrons and one electron; and helium, which has two protons, two neutrons and two electrons. Of course, on Earth there are lots of atoms besides these that are just as common, such as carbon and oxygen, but I'll talk about those soon. An element is what scientists call a group of atoms that are all the same, because they all have the same number of protons. The first atoms form Most of the universe's hydrogen and helium atoms formed about 400,000 years after the Big Bang, which is the name for when scientists think the universe began, about 14 billion years ago. Why did they form at that time? Astronomers know from observing distant exploding stars that the size of the universe has been getting bigger since the Big Bang. When the hydrogen and helium atoms first formed, the universe was about 1,000 times smaller than it is now. Before this time, the electrons had too much energy to settle into orbits around the hydrogen and helium nuclei. So, the hydrogen and helium atoms could form only once the universe cooled down to something like 2,760 degrees Celsius. For historical reasons, this process is misleadingly called recombination, but combination would be more descriptive. The helium and deuterium − a heavier form of hydrogen − nuclei formed even earlier, just a few minutes after the Big Bang, when the temperature was above 556 million degrees Celsius. Protons and neutrons can collide and form nuclei like these only at very high temperatures. Scientists believe that almost all the ordinary matter in the universe is made of about 90% hydrogen atoms and 8% helium atoms. How do more massive atoms form? So, the hydrogen and helium atoms formed during recombination, when the cooler temperature allowed electrons to fall into orbits. But you, I and almost everything on Earth is made of many more massive atoms than just hydrogen and helium. How were these atoms made? The surprising answer is that more massive atoms are made in stars. To make atoms with several protons and neutrons stuck together in the nucleus requires the type of high-energy collisions that occur in very hot places. The energy needed to form a heavier nucleus needs to be large enough to overcome the repulsive electric force that positive charges, like two protons, feel. Protons and neutrons also have another property – kind of like a different type of charge – that is strong enough to bind them together once they are able to get very close together. This property is called the strong force, and the process that sticks these particles together is called fusion. Scientists believe that most of the elements from carbon up to iron are fused in stars heavier than our sun, where the temperature can exceed 556 million degrees Celsius – the same temperature that the universe was when it was a few minutes old. But even in hot stars, elements heavier than iron and nickel won't form. These require extra energy, because the heavier elements can more easily break into pieces. In a dramatic event called a supernova, the inner core of a heavy star suddenly collapses after it runs out of fuel to burn. During the powerful explosion this collapse triggers, elements that are heavier than iron can form and get ejected into the universe. Astronomers are still figuring out the details of other fantastic stellar events that form larger atoms. For example, colliding neutron stars can release enormous amounts of energy – and elements such as gold – on their way to forming black holes. Understanding how atoms are made requires learning a little general relativity, plus some nuclear, particle and atomic physics. But to complicate matters, there is other stuff in the universe that doesn't appear to be made from normal atoms at all, called dark matter. Scientists are investigating what dark matter is and how it forms. DM First published by The Conversation. Stephen L Levy is associate professor of physics, applied physics and astronomy at the State University of New York at Binghamton. This story first appeared in our weekly Daily Maverick 168 newspaper, which is available countrywide for R35.
AllAfrica
17-07-2025
- Science
- AllAfrica
US-China in a defining race for quantum supremacy
Quantum computing is becoming the defining battleground of the 21st-century technological rivalry between the United States and China. The stakes go beyond computational speed: at issue is who will build the technological infrastructure of the future, from intelligent supply chains and personalized medicine to quantum-secure communication and AI-enhanced robotics. Quantum computing is not only a hardware battle; it is a battle for the infrastructure of the 21st century. Fig. 1. Quantum computing combines analog and digital paradigms. Quantum computing combines the principles of computing with those of quantum mechanics. In 1981, American quantum physicist Richard Feynman noted that classical computers, whether analog or digital, struggle to simulate quantum phenomena efficiently. He argued that only a quantum system could simulate another quantum system by using the peculiar behaviors of subatomic particles as computational resources. Feynman asked: 'Could we build a computer that works like the universe itself?' That vision began to take concrete form in 1985, when British physicist David Deutsch published a landmark paper titled 'Quantum Theory, the Church-Turing Principle, and the Universal Quantum Computer .' Deutsch proposed a theoretical framework for a universal quantum computer, introducing the concept of quantum gates and circuits, the building blocks of quantum algorithms. Deutsch laid the foundational architecture for the entire field of quantum computing. At the core of quantum computers is the qubit, or quantum bit. Unlike regular bits in digital (binary) computers, which are either 0 or 1, a qubit can be both 0 and 1 at the same time, thanks to a special quantum mechanical property called superposition. This enables quantum computers to solve specific problems, such as modeling molecules, optimizing systems, or securing data, significantly faster than conventional computers. Qubits can be created in various ways, such as utilizing the spin of tiny particles like electrons or the properties of light, depending on the specific task. A qubit is typically visualized as a sphere, known as the Bloch sphere, which can be thought of as a 3D compass. The discrete structure (the polarities 0 and 1) provides the computational scaffolding: gates, circuits, and algorithms. Whether they are 0 or 1 may depend on context. Computational processes within the Bloch sphere are analog. Quantum algorithms rely on this interplay to achieve exponential speedups in solving specific problems. Fig. 2. The 'fixed' classical binary bit and the 'quantum' bits of the qubit. Analog calculations are executed within the so-called Bloch sphere. The first experimental quantum computers arrived in the late 1990s. In 1998, researchers at Oxford and MIT constructed a basic two-qubit quantum computer utilizing nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) techniques. Though limited in function, it served as a proof of concept. From the 2000s onward, quantum computing became a global technological race, involving academia, governments, tech giants, and startups. In 2006, China entered the quantum computing race when the government announced its 2020 Science and Technology Roadmap, identifying 'quantum control' as a key area of basic research . In 2021, its 14th Five-Year Plan, quantum information ranked second among cutting-edge science and technology fields, just behind artificial intelligence (AI). In March of this year, China launched a 1 trillion yuan (~US$138 billion) national venture fund, explicitly targeting quantum computing and related technologies. China's advances in quantum computing have been spectacular. In 2020, scientists at the University of Science and Technology of China (USTC) unveiled Jiuzhang, a photonic quantum computer that performed a task in 200 seconds that would have taken a classical supercomputer over 2.5 billion years. Later versions, such as Jiuzhang 2.0, further improved performance. In 2021, researchers at the University of Science and Technology of China (USTC) unveiled Zuchongzhi 2.1, a 66-qubit superconducting quantum processor that demonstrated a significant quantum advantage over classical supercomputers. In 2023, the same team announced Zuchongzhi 3.0, a 105-qubit processor that further advanced performance benchmarks, reportedly outperforming previous benchmarks, including Google's 2019 Sycamore experiment, by a factor of up to a million in specific sampling tasks. These achievements underscore China's rapid progress in hardware scaling and system optimization. Fig. 3. Quantum computing developments in the U.S. and China. China has also taken a major leap forward in building a global quantum communication network by successfully establishing an ultra-secure quantum key distribution (QKD) link between Beijing and South Africa. The breakthrough marks the latest milestone in China's ambitious Quantum Experiments at Space Scale (QUESS) program, which is centered around the satellite Micius (also known as Mozi), launched in 2016. Micius has enabled several landmark achievements in quantum communication, including a 2017 quantum-encrypted video call between China and Austria, covering 7,600 kilometers, and secure communication experiments with Russia. Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) is a method of transmitting encryption keys using quantum particles, such as photons. If intercepted, these quantum keys collapse, alerting users to a breach, thus ensuring a level of security unachievable by classical methods. The latest demonstration used China's low-cost quantum micro- and nano-satellites in tandem with mobile ground stations, signaling a shift from experimental setups to deployable systems. According to Yin Juan, a leading scientist behind Micius, this demonstration is part of China's plan to launch a global quantum communication service by 2027, targeting BRICS countries and other strategic partners. While China's quantum computing efforts are centrally coordinated and state-led, the United States thrives on a model of decentralized, grassroots innovation driven by its world-leading tech industry, academic institutions and venture capital ecosystem. Major players, including Google, IBM, Microsoft and Rigetti, are advancing diverse quantum hardware architectures, such as superconducting qubits, and hybrid platforms that integrate quantum processors with classical computing backends. One of the most notable milestones occurred in 2019, when Google's Sycamore processor achieved quantum supremacy, completing a computational task in 200 seconds that would have taken a classical supercomputer an estimated 10,000 years. (Quantum supremacy is defined as demonstrating a quantum computer's superiority over classical systems in a specific task.) Building on this success, Google unveiled its Willow processor in 2024, demonstrating progress toward fault-tolerant quantum computing through the implementation of error-corrected logical qubits—a critical step toward scalable quantum applications. Although the US has some national coordination (the National Quantum Initiative Act (2018) and government funding), its strength lies in a vibrant ecosystem characterized by diversity of approaches, interdisciplinary collaboration and a culture of high-risk, high-reward experimentation. Silicon Valley's innovation model encourages rapid prototyping, iterative design and aggressive commercialization timelines. Quantum startups receive significant backing from both public and private investors, enabling parallel experimentation across different technologies and use cases. Moreover, the United States continues to lead in foundational theoretical research. It remains at the forefront of quantum error correction, quantum algorithm development and hybrid quantum–classical integration strategies, all of which are essential for transforming quantum computing from a lab-bound curiosity into a transformative industrial technology. The link between academic research, corporate R&D and entrepreneurial dynamism positions the US as a formidable and resilient force in the quantum era. Quantum computing will transform how humans interact with machines. By fusing the strengths of both analog and digital computation, it promises to reshape human-machine interfaces (HMIs) and accelerate the convergence of AI, robotics, and advanced sensing technologies. This hybrid capability opens the door to more intuitive, responsive and adaptive machines that can engage with the world in ways closer to how humans think and feel. Traditional binary computing relies on discrete bits, symbolic logic and rule-based processing. In contrast, human experience is inherently analog: we sense the world in smooth, continuous flows of perception, motion, emotion and intention. This fundamental mismatch limits current machines' ability to interpret complex human states such as mood, focus, or intention. Quantum computing bridges this gap. As a hybrid system, it combines the fluidity of analog systems with the structure of digital logic, offering a powerful new platform for building machines that can both process continuous sensory input and make discrete, context-sensitive decisions. Fig. 4. Key features of the analog and digital principles. In the field of robotics, the tension between analog and digital systems is particularly pronounced. Human-like movement involves solving continuous motion trajectories while simultaneously making discrete decisions, such as when to stop, turn or grasp an object. This blend of fluid dynamics and symbolic logic is difficult for classical computers to manage efficiently. A similar challenge arises in brain-computer interfaces (BCIs). Brain activity is inherently analog, expressed through continuous waves and subtle fluctuations in electrical patterns. Translating these signals into discrete commands for digital systems demands enormous computational power and precision. Quantum computing opens the possibility of real-time mental control of external devices, and even the emergence of shared cognitive environments where information flows seamlessly between human and machine. In such systems, intention, attention and emotion could be sensed, decoded and responded to with unprecedented speed and sensitivity. Beyond hardware rivalry, long-term leadership in quantum computing will center on the integration of various technologies. China is still lagging behind the US in basic research, including the development of fault-tolerant systems. However, China is well-positioned to play a leading role in integrating quantum computing, AI and robotics, thanks to its unique combination of industrial capacity, policy coordination, and state-of-the-art public infrastructure. At the hardware level, China is unparalleled in its ability to produce quantum and AI components at scale. It has made breakthroughs in key technologies like superconducting quantum processors, photonic computing and scalable control systems. At the same time, China leads the world in robotics manufacturing, and its domestic companies produce competitive AI accelerator chips such as Huawei's Ascend. The vertically integrated supply chain gives China a distinct advantage in building tightly coupled quantum, AI and robotic systems. China is also expanding its geopolitical influence through technology exports, such as quantum key distribution links with Austria, Russia and South Africa, as well as robotics and AI systems across the Global South. Its ambition is not only to master these technologies but to shape global standards and infrastructure, especially among BRICS and Belt and Road countries. Fig. 5. Expected milestone in quantum computing development. (HPC refers to High Performance Computing.) Quantum computing will gradually increase its capabilities and expand into more domains. The primary users will be pharmaceutical and chemical companies, financial institutions, tech giants, governments and research institutions involved in climate modeling. Smaller users and perhaps consumers may be able to rent 'quantum computing time' in the quantum cloud. (There won't be a quantum computer on every desk, but perhaps a quantum terminal.) The jury is still out on who will win the quantum computing race. But the country that can fuse quantum computing with real-world systems, from intelligent supply chains to brain-computer interfaces, will play a leading role in the future of computation. The winner may not be the one with the first universal quantum computer, but the one that builds the first quantum-powered infrastructure of the 21st century.
Fast Company
15-07-2025
- Science
- Fast Company
What is quantum computing? Here's everything you need to know right now
Computing revolutions are surprisingly rare. Despite the extraordinary technological progress that separates the first general-purpose digital computer—1945's ENIAC —from the smartphone in your pocket, both machines actually work the same fundamental way: by boiling down every task into a simple mathematical system of ones and zeros. For decades, so did every other computing device on the planet. Then there are quantum computers—the first ground-up reimagining of how computing works since it was invented. Quantum is not about processing ones and zeros faster. Instead, it runs on qubits—more on those later—and embraces advanced physics to take computation places it's never been before. The results could one day have a profound impact on medicine, energy, finance, and beyond—maybe, perhaps not soon, and only if the sector's greatest expectations play out. The field's origins trace to a 1981 conference near Boston cohosted by MIT and IBM called Physics of Computation. There, legendary physicist Richard Feynman proposed building a computer based on the principles of quantum mechanics, pioneered in the early 20th century by Max Planck, Albert Einstein, and Niels Bohr, among others. By the century's end—following seminal research at MIT, IBM, and elsewhere, including Caltech and Bell Labs—tech giants and startups alike joined the effort. It remains one of the industry's longest slogs, and much of the work lies ahead. Willow, a Post-it-size quantum processor that its lead developer, Hartmut Neven, described as 'a major step.' In February, Microsoft debuted the Majorana 1 chip —'a transformative leap,' according to the company (though some quantum experts have questioned its claims). A week later, Amazon introduced a prototype of its own quantum processor, called Ocelot, deeming the experimental chip 'a breakthrough.' And in March, after one of D-Wave's machines performed a simulation of magnetic materials that would have been impossible on a supercomputer, CEO Alan Baratz declared his company had attained the sector's 'holy grail.' No wonder the tech industry—whose interest in quantum computing has waxed and waned over its decades-long gestation—is newly tantalized.
The Hindu
09-07-2025
- Science
- The Hindu
How do atoms form?
Richard Feynman, a famous theoretical physicist who won the Nobel Prize, said that if he could pass on only one piece of scientific information to future generations, it would be that all things are made of atoms. Understanding how atoms form is a fundamental and important question, since they make up everything with mass. The question of where atoms come from requires a lot of physics to be answered completely – and even then, physicists like me only have good guesses to explain how some atoms are formed. What is an atom? An atom consists of a heavy centre, called the nucleus, made of particles called protons and neutrons. An atom has lighter particles called electrons that you can think of as orbiting around the nucleus. The electrons each carry one unit of negative charge, the protons each carry one unit of positive charge, and the neutrons have no charge. An atom has the same number of protons as electrons, so it is neutral − it has no overall charge. Now, most of the atoms in the universe are the two simplest kinds: hydrogen, which has one proton, zero neutrons and one electron; and helium, which has two protons, two neutrons and two electrons. Of course, on Earth there are lots of atoms besides these that are just as common, such as carbon and oxygen, but I'll talk about those soon. An element is what scientists call a group of atoms that are all the same, because they all have the same number of protons. When did the first atoms form? Most of the universe's hydrogen and helium atoms formed around 400,000 years after the Big Bang, which is the name for when scientists think the universe began, about 14 billion years ago. Why did they form at that time? Astronomers know from observing distant exploding stars that the size of the universe has been getting bigger since the Big Bang. When the hydrogen and helium atoms first formed, the universe was about 1,000 times smaller than it is now. And based on their understanding of physics, scientists believe that the universe was much hotter when it was smaller. Before this time, the electrons had too much energy to settle into orbits around the hydrogen and helium nuclei. So, the hydrogen and helium atoms could form only once the universe cooled down to something like 2,760 degrees C. For historical reasons, this process is misleadingly called recombination − combination would be more descriptive. The helium and deuterium − a heavier form of hydrogen − nuclei formed even earlier, just a few minutes after the Big Bang, when the temperature was above 556 million C. Protons and neutrons can collide and form nuclei like these only at very high temperatures. Scientists believe that almost all the ordinary matter in the universe is made of about 90% hydrogen atoms and 8% helium atoms. How do more massive atoms form? So, the hydrogen and helium atoms formed during recombination, when the cooler temperature allowed electrons to fall into orbits. But you, I and almost everything on Earth is made of many more massive atoms than just hydrogen and helium. How were these atoms made? The surprising answer is that more massive atoms are made in stars. To make atoms with several protons and neutrons stuck together in the nucleus requires the type of high-energy collisions that occur in very hot places. The energy needed to form a heavier nucleus needs to be large enough to overcome the repulsive electric force that positive charges, like two protons, feel with each other. Protons and neutrons also have another property – kind of like a different type of charge – that is strong enough to bind them together once they are able to get very close together. This property is called the strong force, and the process that sticks these particles together is called fusion. Scientists believe that most of the elements from carbon up to iron are fused in stars heavier than our Sun, where the temperature can exceed 556 million C – the same temperature that the universe was when it was just a few minutes old. But even in hot stars, elements heavier than iron and nickel won't form. These require extra energy, because the heavier elements can more easily break into pieces. In a dramatic event called a supernova, the inner core of a heavy star suddenly collapses after it runs out of fuel to burn. During the powerful explosion this collapse triggers, elements that are heavier than iron can form and get ejected out into the universe. Astronomers are still figuring out the details of other fantastic stellar events that form larger atoms. For example, colliding neutron stars can release enormous amounts of energy – and elements such as gold – on their way to forming black holes. Understanding how atoms are made just requires learning a little general relativity, plus some nuclear, particle and atomic physics. But to complicate matters, there is other stuff in the universe that doesn't appear to be made from normal atoms at all, called dark matter. Scientists are investigating what dark matter is and how it might form. Stephen L. Levy Associate Professor of Physics and Applied Physics and Astronomy, Binghamton University, State University of New York. This article is republished from The Conversation.
Fast Company
08-07-2025
- Entertainment
- Fast Company
How AI is advancing even faster than sci-fi visionaries imagined
Every time I read about another advance in AI technology, I feel like another figment of science fiction moves closer to reality. Lately, I've been noticing eerie parallels to Neal Stephenson's 1995 novel The Diamond Age: Or, A Young Lady's Illustrated Primer. The Diamond Age depicted a post-cyberpunk sectarian future, in which society is fragmented into tribes, called phyles. In this future world, sophisticated nanotechnology is ubiquitous, and a new type of AI is introduced. Though inspired by MIT nanotech pioneer Eric Drexler and Nobel Prize winner Richard Feynman, the advanced nanotechnology depicted in the novel still remains out of reach. However, the AI that's portrayed, particularly a teaching device called the Young Lady's Illustrated Primer, isn't only right in front of us; it also raises serious issues about the role of AI in labor, learning and human behavior. In Stephenson's novel, the Primer looks like a hardcover book, but each of its 'pages' is really a screen display that can show animations and text, and it responds to its user in real time via AI. The book also has an audio component, which voices the characters and narrates stories being told by the device. It was originally created for the young daughter of an aristocrat, but it accidentally falls into the hands of a girl named Nell who's living on the streets of a futuristic Shanghai. The Primer provides Nell personalized emotional, social and intellectual support during her journey to adulthood, serving alternatively as an AI companion, a storyteller, a teacher and a surrogate parent. The AI is able to weave fairy tales that help a younger Nell cope with past traumas, such as her abusive home and life on the streets. It educates her on everything from math to cryptography to martial arts. In a techno-futuristic homage to George Bernard Shaw's 1913 play Pygmalion, the Primer goes so far as to teach Nell the proper social etiquette to be able to blend into neo-Victorian society, one of the prominent tribes in Stephenson's balkanized world. No need for 'ractors' Three recent developments in AI—in video games, wearable technology and education—reveal that building something like the Primer should no longer be considered the purview of science fiction. In May 2025, the hit video game Fortnite introduced an AI version of Darth Vader, who speaks with the voice of the late James Earl Jones. While it was popular among fans of the game, the Screen Actors Guild lodged a labor complaint with Epic Games, the creator of Fortnite. Even though Epic had received permission from the late actor's estate, the Screen Actors Guild pointed out that actors could have been hired to voice the character, and the company—in refusing to alert the union and negotiate terms— violated existing labor agreements. In The Diamond Age, while the Primer uses AI to generate the fairy tales that train Nell, for the voices of these archetypal characters, Stephenson concocted a low-tech solution: The characters are played by a network of what he termed 'ractors'—real actors working in a studio who are contracted to perform and interact in real time with users. The Darth Vader Fortnite character shows that a Primer built today wouldn't need to use actors at all. It could rely almost entirely on AI voice generation and have real-time conversations, showing that today's technology already exceeds Stephenson's normally far-sighted vision. Recording and guiding in real time Synthesizing James Earl Jones' voice in Fortnite wasn't the only recent AI development heralding the arrival of Primer-like technology. I recently witnessed a demonstration of wearable AI that records all of the wearer's conversations. Their words are then sent to a server so they can be analyzed by AI, providing both summaries and suggestions to the user about future behavior. Several startups are making these 'always on' AI wearables. In an April 29, 2025, essay titled 'I Recorded Everything I Said for Three Months. AI Has Replaced My Memory,' Wall Street Journal technology columnist Joanna Stern describes the experience of using this technology. She concedes that the assistants created useful summaries of her conversations and meetings, along with helpful to-do lists. However, they also recalled 'every dumb, private and cringeworthy thing that came out of my mouth.' These devices also create privacy issues. The people whom the user interacts with don't always know they are being recorded, even as their words are also sent to a server for the AI to process them. To Stern, the technology's potential for mass surveillance becomes readily apparent, presenting a 'slightly terrifying glimpse of the future.' Relying on AI engines such as ChatGPT, Claude, and Google's Gemini, the wearables work only with words, not images. Behavioral suggestions occur only after the fact. However, a key function of the Primer—coaching users in real time in the middle of any situation or social interaction—is the next logical step as the technology advances. Education or social engineering? In The Diamond Age, the Primer doesn't simply weave interactive fairy tales for Nell. It also assumes the responsibility of educating her on everything from her ABCs when younger to the intricacies of cryptography and politics as she gets older. It's no secret that AI tools, such as ChatGPT, are now being widely used by both teachers and students. Several recent studies have shown that AI may be more effective than humans at teaching computer science. One survey found that 85% of students said ChatGPT was more effective than a human tutor. And at least one college, Morehouse College in Atlanta, is introducing an AI teaching assistant for professors. There are certainly advantages to AI tutors: Tutoring and college tuition can be exorbitantly expensive, and the technology can offer better access to education to people of all income levels. Pulling together these latest AI advances—interactive avatars, behavioral guides, tutors—it's easy to envision how an AI device like the Young Lady's Illustrated Primer could be created in the near future. A young person might have a personalized AI character that accompanies them at all times. It can teach them about the world and offer up suggestions for how to act in certain situations. The AI could be tailored to a child's personality, concocting stories that include AI versions of their favorite TV and movie characters. But The Diamond Age offers a warning, too. Toward the end of the novel, a version of the Primer is handed out to hundreds of thousands of young Chinese girls who, like Nell, didn't have access to education or mentors. This leads to the education of the masses. But it also opens the door to large-scale social engineering, creating an army of Primer-raised martial arts experts, whom the AI then directs to act on behalf of 'Princess Nell,' Nell's fairy tale name. It's easy to see how this sort of large-scale social engineering could be used to target certain ideologies, crush dissent or build loyalty to a particular regime. The AI's behavior could also be subject to the whims of the companies or individuals that created it. A ubiquitous, always-on, friendly AI could become the ultimate monitoring and reporting device. Think of a kinder, gentler face for Big Brother that people have trusted since childhood.
