26-06-2025
The city of Isfahan: From a Persian capital to a nuclear hub
Last weekend's US strikes on nuclear sites in Iran hit one of the country's major nuclear bases: Isfahan, a city that plays a defining role in Iranian history. Once the Persian capital, Isfahan was known for its flawless infrastructure and administration—often called 'Nesf-e-Jahan' or 'Half the World'.
Here's a look at the rise and decline of one of Iran's most historic cities.
In 1395, Shaykh Safi ad Din of Ardabil founded a Sufi order, Safaviyya, in northwest Iran that gave rise to the Safavid dynasty. Having begun as a religious order, the Safavids grew into a warrior class, dedicated to fighting enemies of the faith and espousing Shiism. Starting in 1500, the Safavids began a conquest of the region that now encompasses Iran, Azerbaijan, Armenia, and parts of Iraq, Turkey, and Syria.
In his book Persia in Crisis: Safavid Decline and the Fall of Isfahan (2012), academic Rudolph (Rudi) P Matthee remarks that the nationalist narrative credits the Safavids as the first dynasty since the Mongols to knit Iran together as a territorial unit. As a matter of course, the glory of Isfahan dates back to the Safavid Dynasty (1501-1736).
In A Historical Atlas of Iran (2003), author Fred Ramen says that the Safavids reached their greatest height under the rule of Abbas I (1587-1629).
Matthee adds, 'Iran became an urban-centred society of great cultural achievement, a nation imbued with an outward-looking elan connecting it to the globalizing world by way of long-distance commerce and diplomacy.'
Isfahan, founded by Abbas I and made the capital of Persia in 1598, reached its height in the seventeenth century. Around that time, it had a few hundred thousand inhabitants. In an interview with Matthee, says, 'Isfahan is of course very old. It goes back to pre-Islamic times, and there are actually stories that it has Jewish origins, which is interesting and significant given the circumstances today.'
The initial capital of the Safavids, Matthee says, was Tabriz. 'That is where the Safavids declared their state and Shia Islam as their faith,' he adds.
Abbas I, however, moved his capital to Isfahan. While an existing city, Abbas I gave it grandeur, Ramen says, adding that he reorganised the infrastructure of the city, building magnificent gardens, palaces, mosques and bridges.
In his book, Matthee notes, 'The lead actor in this script is Shah Abbas the 'Great', who plays the role of Renaissance prince, equal in fortitude and sophistication to the greatest contemporary European monarchs.' Abbas I's governing style, which included his habit of strolling through the streets of Isfahan during festivals and engaging with the masses, was also notable, says Matthee.
One of Isfahan's most well-known sites was the Imam/Royal Square, which was used for polo games and large gatherings. Matthee exclaims, 'It's one of the wonders! 600 metres long and 300 metres wide and a perfect combination of royal power and commercial activity.' A market was also held every day, in one corner of the square.
A lesser-known fact, he adds, was that the Royal Square also served as the execution square. 'So it had this very interesting dual role. On the one hand, it symbolised the power of the state through deterrence, in terms of executing people in public, but also a panoply of festivities through polo games.' Another attraction was the Masjed-e-Jomeh, also known as the Friday Mosque.
As the capital, Isfahan was centrally located and boasted an important trading centre. Merchants from all over Eurasia frequented its well-stocked bazaars and coffeehouses. Neighbouring cities, like Tabriz, were thriving similarly. While the fertile plains around these cities produced plenty, there were recorded cases of bread riots.
Interestingly, Abbas I moved tens of thousands of Armenians from their ancestral home in what is today's Armenia to Isfahan, creating a new suburb called New Julfa. Christians, Armenians and Georgians were also given positions of privilege in the administration and military.
'This was not a friendly move necessarily,' reckons Matthee, explaining that the Armenians were known for their commercial acumen and agility, which would benefit the Safavids. 'They became his service gentry in terms of improving and increasing the commercial flow in and out of Iran,' he opines. They traded from England to the Philippines, and dispatched envoys to far-flung courts in Europe and Asia. 'The outcome of his efforts was a centrally controlled country under visionary leadership, a nexus of long-distance trade and diplomacy,' writes Matthee in Persia in Crisis.
Isfahan assumed importance as a nodal point between Iran and the West. Abbas I invited the Dutch and English East India Companies here, creating a global network. 'The westerners were exuberant about how well-planned and well-organised Isfahan was,' Matthee told The architecture and safety of the city were such that academics like Marshall Hodgson have associated it with a renaissance.
A sixteenth-century phrase associated with the city was 'Isfahan nesf-eh jahan', meaning Isfahan is half of the world. 'The city was ultimately known for its contributions to religion, culture and government,' writes Ramen. However, its splendour lasted only for a little over a century.
The Safavids fell into decline after the reign of Abbas I. In 1722, Afghan tribesmen conquered Isfahan, effectively ending the Safavid Empire. 'The Afghans invaded with 10,000 warriors and laid siege to Isfahan, bringing it down after six months, through starvation on the most part,' notes Matthee.
Scholars have attributed the fall to various factors, including a lack of royal attention, military neglect, injustice with the peasantry, excessive expenditure and so on.
Matthee's book notes that while the Safavid state had become centrally organised under Abbas I, it was never able to overcome the tribal nomadic roots. The capital never revived until modern times.
Visitors to Isfahan in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, according to Matthee, lamented the destroyed city filled with ruins, where jackals howled at night. 'They expected this grandeur but witnessed total ugliness,' he says.
The state of desolation lasted until the 20th century, when the city was revived and the square was restored.
Today, Isfahan is home to Iran's major air base and is also a nuclear site. According to news reports, the facility at Isfahan operates three research reactors, as well as handles fuel production and other activities for the country's civilian nuclear programme.
Nikita writes for the Research Section of focusing on the intersections between colonial history and contemporary issues, especially in gender, culture, and sport.
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