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Health Line
3 days ago
- Health
- Health Line
What Are the Most Effective Natural Antibiotics?
Certain plant extracts, essential oils, and even foods have antibiotic properties. For example, some food and vegetable extracts can prevent the growth of bacteria in food. This includes garlic, honey, and certain herbs. Antibiotics are used to kill or inhibit bacteria growth. Although you might think of antibiotics as modern medicine, they've actually been around for centuries. Like many of today's antibiotics, the original antibiotics are derived from natural sources. Sometimes, the properties of these natural sources extend beyond the food and can aid in your personal hygiene. Cranberry extract contains antibacterial and antioxidant compounds, making it a home remedy for urinary tract infections (UTIs). Herbs can be antibiotics, too. A small sampling study of 58 Chinese plants found that 23 had antibacterial properties and 15 had antifungal properties. A 2014 study found that an herbal therapy was just as effective as a chemical antibiotic in treating a small intestine bacterial overgrowth disorder. Keep reading to learn about five natural remedies with antibiotic effects you can try at home. Honey Honey is one of the oldest known antibiotics, dating to ancient times. Egyptians frequently used honey as a natural antibiotic and skin protectant. Honey contains hydrogen peroxide, which may account for some of its antibacterial properties. It also has a high sugar content, which can help stop the growth of certain bacteria. Additionally, honey has a low pH level. This works to pull moisture away from bacteria, causing them to become dehydrated and die off. To use honey as an antibiotic, apply it directly to the wound or infected area. The honey can help kill off the bacteria and aid in the healing process. If possible, opt for raw Manuka honey. This form of honey offers the most health benefits. You can also ingest honey to aid in the treatment of internal infections. For a soothing treat, simply swallow a whole tablespoon or stir it into a warm cup of herbal tea. Honey is generally safe to use on the skin or in the body, though you should never give honey to an infant under a year old. Instead, consult your healthcare professional for an appropriate alternative. Garlic extract Garlic has long been thought to have antimicrobial properties. A 2021 review concluded that the organosulfur compounds in garlic are effective against a wide variety of bacteria. You can purchase garlic concentrate or extract at your local health food store. You may also be able to make your own by soaking a few garlic cloves in olive oil. Garlic is generally safe to ingest, but large doses might cause internal bleeding. Up to two cloves per day is considered an acceptable dosage. If you're taking a garlic supplement, be sure to follow the dosage directions as provided. If you're taking blood-thinning medication, consult your healthcare provider before using garlic as an antibiotic. Large doses of garlic can amplify the effects of this medication. You can also apply garlic concentrate directly to a wound or blemish. Myrrh extract Many people are familiar with myrrh, but its ability to ward off harmful germs is less well-known. Researchers in a 2000 study concluded that an extract of myrrh could kill off several everyday pathogens. This includes: E. coli Staphylococcus aureus Pseudomonas aeruginosa Candida albicans A 2020 in vitro study found that myrrh oil preferentially kills nongrowing bacteria without the organisms building any resistance. Typically, nongrowing bacteria tend to be more antibiotic-resistant than growing bacteria. Myrrh is generally well-tolerated, but ingesting it may cause diarrhea. If myrrh is applied to the skin, it's possible to experience a minor skin rash. If consumed in large doses, myrrh may cause heart problems. Myrrh is typically prepackaged, so be sure to follow the dosage instructions on the label. Thyme essential oil Many all-natural household cleaners use thyme essential oil. This oil has been shown to be especially helpful against antibiotic-resistant bacteria. In a 2011 study, researchers tested the effectiveness of both lavender and thyme essential oils. Both oils were tested in a pool of over 120 strains of bacteria. The researchers found thyme essential oil to be more effective at killing bacteria than lavender essential oil. Thyme essential oil is for external use only. You shouldn't take thyme oil by mouth. Before applying to the affected area, be sure to dilute the essential oil with equal parts carrier oil. Common carrier oils include coconut and olive oils. Applying undiluted essential oil to the skin may cause inflammation and irritation. People with high blood pressure or hyperthyroid problems shouldn't use thyme essential oil. Oregano essential oil Carvacrol is an ingredient found in oregano essential oil. It has important therapeutic properties that further activate healing in the body when inhaled. Carvacrol in oregano oil has been found to help heal gastric ulcers and reduce inflammation. To treat fungal infections on your skin, add one drop of oregano essential oil per teaspoon of a carrier oil such as olive or coconut oil. Apply the mixture to the affected area. You can also diffuse oregano oil in the air to help clear sinus infections. You shouldn't ingest oregano essential oil or use undiluted essential oil on the skin. You may also be able to eradicate bacteria in the home with a homemade cleaning agent made of: oregano essential oil vinegar water lemon The bottom line Be sure to discuss your interest in natural antibiotics with your healthcare professional. They can help you explore your options and help you weigh the potential benefits and risks of each regimen. You shouldn't take antibiotics unless absolutely necessary. Taking antibiotics for the sake of taking antibiotics can lead your body to build up a resistance to the medication. You can learn ways to help prevent antibiotic resistance here.
Telegraph
28-05-2025
- Health
- Telegraph
I spent a month improving my gut health to see if it would calm my anxiety
The phrases 'gut instinct' and 'trust your gut' are born from so much more than a metaphorical flutter in your stomach. In fact, they have roots in the ancient understanding of the gut as a centre of instinct and emotion, with the ancient Greeks believing that the stomach was the seat of emotion. The idea of 'gut feeling' refers to our enteric nervous system – a complex network of neurons that line the walls of the gastrointestinal tract. Sometimes called the 'second brain', this network has over 100 million neurons (which, by the way, is more than your spinal cord) and can sense, process, and respond to information without checking in with your actual brain. Which means that sometimes, your gut really does know what's up before you do. So here is my theory: perhaps, as someone with a high-functioning anxiety disorder, I have been going wrong all these years in treating my 'first' brain, when I should have been treating my second. Since my 20s, I've had a hypersensitive nervous system, with the full spectrum of anxiety symptoms to go with it; adrenaline spikes at the most inconvenient, incongruous times, racing heart, dizzy spells, spiralling thoughts, nausea etc. I've tried pretty much everything to manage it, from cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) to hypnotherapy, meditation apps to anti-anxiety medication. Some things have worked better than others, but I have come to accept it's going to be an ongoing project, but I'm excited about my next tactic. But what does gut health have to do with anxiety? The connection between our gut and brain – otherwise known as the gut-brain axis – is a well-established but still evolving area of study, and recently it's been suggested that increasing your intake of probiotics – the live bacteria that help maintain a healthy gut microbiome – can significantly reduce anxiety symptoms, effectively acting as a form of nutritional psychiatry. It makes perfect sense when you understand that your gut bacteria can influence the release of the stress hormone cortisol, and a diverse and balanced biome helps produce mood-regulating chemicals like serotonin and dopamine. An imbalance can send distress signals to the brain, potentially fuelling anxiety. Naturally, I decided to test this theory out on myself, but I'd need some expert guidance in the form of registered nutritionist Jessica Shand, who would need a snapshot of my current gut health to get me started. What's happening in my gut? I took a StrideBiome test to establish a baseline for my microbiome. Stride uses advanced DNA sequencing to work out the diversity and balance of your gut bacteria (via an only mildly mortifying DIY stool sample), then produces a lab report with insights into which strains of bacteria you have and which you might be lacking. My results showed a few key imbalances, including low levels of anxiety-reducing strains Bifidobacterium and, most notably, a complete absence of Lactobacillus – another critical calming neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid-(GABA) -producing species that also helps to regulate cortisol, our primary stress hormone. Ah. So this might explain a few things. Armed with this knowledge, Shand helped me work out a gut-brain reset game plan. First up, supplements. She explained that not all probiotics are created equal when it comes to reducing anxiety. 'There are specific strains like the ones you're low on – Lactobacillus rhamnosus and Bifidobacterium longum – that have been shown in some studies to reduce symptoms of anxiety and improve mood,' she told me. 'Research is still ongoing and findings can vary on specific, but these strains in probiotics may help modulate the gut-brain axis by reducing inflammation, influencing neurotransmitter production such as serotonin and dopamine, and enhancing gut lining integrity, all of which are thought to play roles in emotional regulation and therefore anxiety.' What the expert says Shand suggested the Seed DS-01 Daily Synbiotic, a standout in the probiotic world. It combines both prebiotics (the fibres that feed good bacteria) and probiotics (the beneficial bacteria themselves) in a single formulation. This is important because it ensures the probiotics can survive the journey through my digestive system and reach my colon, where they can actually make a difference to support not just digestive health, but also mental wellbeing. It's designed to replenish those missing Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium strains, boosting GABA production (a naturally occurring substance that's made by our bodies and helps promote relaxation and reduce anxiety) and regulating my cortisol response, therefore (potentially) helping to turn down my anxiety at its biological source. Translation: A science-backed shortcut to a more balanced microbiome, which, for someone like me, is wildly appealing. But it's not just about popping a daily pill. To truly support a healthy brain-gut axis, I need to create an environment where the good bacteria can thrive. That means making some dietary and lifestyle tweaks to set me on the best possible path. Having chatted honestly, Shand understands that I am not a card-carrying member of the Intensive Healthy Lifestyle Club, and so her advice is to make realistically achievable changes. To be sustainable, my habits need to be 'better than', rather than drastically overhauled, ie definitely not a strict overhaul that might add to my anxiety overwhelm. What aiming for 'better than' looks like 'Have the coffee! You're a mother of two young kids, just don't have it first thing in the morning as it will spike your cortisol levels,' Shand tells me. 'Drinking it after a protein-rich breakfast is more beneficial as the food intake primes the body and blunts the harsh impact of the caffeine.' This I can do. Even better, swap out the second or even third cup for a Sixways Hormone Balancing Decaf. ('It contains maitake functional mushroom plus inositol and vitamin B6 to support blood sugar balance and hormonal health, and I promise it doesn't taste of mushrooms!') A probiotic-rich diet isn't a million miles away from what I was eating before, but having a solid awareness of what I was consuming, and why, made me much more motivated to stick to it. A lot of the meals and recipes she suggested are already what I like to eat, just with some gut-loving substitutes. Shand advised me to incorporate a variety of plant-based, fibre-rich, and fermented foods into daily meals. Think kimchi, sauerkraut, kefir, miso, and live yogurt, (the fermentation produces natural probiotics). Plus prebiotic fibres (the food that good bacteria thrive on), including garlic, onions, and bananas. My usual turkey mince bolognese is good, but a lentil ragu is better for an extra dose of fibre, supporting my digestion and therefore the growth of beneficial bacteria. A potato and spinach curry can be upgraded to a chickpea and cavolo nero, prebiotic one. Both, by the way, are delicious, comforting, hearty – just good, in all senses. So, for the next few weeks, I committed to this gut-reset protocol: Take probiotic supplements on an empty stomach. Eat more (delicious) probiotic-rich food. Cut down on (but not avoid entirely – see above) known gut disruptors like processed foods and alcohol, which can kill the good bacteria I'm trying desperately to cling on to. I struggled with this last step more than I'd like to admit, such is the constant battle of the overly anxious. Shand suggested swapping a mid-week wind-down glass of wine for Motherroot, a sort of sweet-spicy, alcohol-free alternative that actually supports digestion and stabilises blood sugar with a ginger and apple cider vinegar blend. I mix it with soda and actually love it for an after-kids bedtime treat. Also, just the idea that I am putting something good into my body rather than the guilt of another glass of wine does wonders to relieve my morning-after anxiety all on its own. It's not an immediate switch flip, but I stuck to the protocol for three solid months, and as the days turned into weeks, I started to notice subtle but significant shifts in my mood. The first, most notably, at a time when I'd feel the most overstimulated anxiety spike that would present as extreme impatience. Attempting to get my kids out the door so I could make the right train to get me to an important (therefore bonus anxiety-inducing) meeting on time. It was a subtle shift, like a small presence of kindness that allowed me to reason with myself, reason with my kids and extinguish the bomb threat that would've made the whole schedule meltdown. It could also have been the better sleep, which is another notable change. And so it continued. More often than not, mornings felt less like waking up with anxiety as my first involuntary thought, and more like a gradual stretch into the day. The daily urge to doom-scan and look for the things going wrong in my life (it sounds ridiculous, but will be familiar to anyone with anxiety) felt less prominent. I found myself approaching potentially stressful situations with a bit more patience and less catastrophic thinking. The verdict It wasn't always easy to stick to, and yes, I strayed back to the mid-week wine every so often when my resolve slipped. The hardest part is going out with friends because when presented with a menu that someone else is cooking, I will always be driven to order by my heart rather than my gut. And my heart invariably desires the most delicious, usually unhealthy thing. But Shand encouraged me to remember I'm going for 'better than', not gut perfection, so I decided not to let this cause me anxiety in itself. The benefits quickly outweighed any motivational negatives. Interestingly, my gut itself seemed to be responding too. Without getting too graphic, my digestion felt more 'efficient' and my bloating – a near-constant, very unwelcome guest – significantly reduced. While I'm not suggesting that a few spoonfuls of sauerkraut will cure anyone's anxiety disorder, the cumulative impact of the probiotic plus these small changes has been surprisingly profound, perhaps key to this particular project. It's hard to ignore the psychological lift that comes from simply feeling better in your own body and choices. I feel more resilient, a bit more hopeful, and at times when I'd previously noticed otherwise, have a kind of mental clarity. Of course, this is an ongoing journey rather than a magic bullet – it's never going to be as simple as popping a pill and waking up panic-free. Before I'd done this deep dive on my gut health, I knew – like most of us – that alcohol and eating junk food were causing spikes in my anxiety. I'd have a few glasses with friends on a Friday evening and wake up to either a full-blown panic attack or a traitorous guilt. But what this has taught me is how significant small, subtle and consistent dietary changes can be in improving your gut health and anxiety. The challenge becomes making these regular habits. Building a healthy gut is a long game; a mix of the right supplements, diverse plant fibres, fermented foods, and stress management techniques is a constant work in progress. Still, the idea that I might be able to influence my mood from the inside out – to literally feed my happiness – is a compelling one. There's something incredibly empowering about knowing I can influence my mental health whilst improving my overall health, since for me this experiment was about finding a more holistic approach that addresses the root causes rather than just the symptoms. And the logic, the science behind it, helps to act as an anchor too. For now, I'm trusting my gut – in the truest, most biological sense of the phrase – and am optimistic that this approach might be the missing piece in my personal anxiety puzzle. And if nothing else, my digestive system is certainly grateful.
Yahoo
22-05-2025
- Science
- Yahoo
Rare face tattoos on 800-year-old mystery mummy baffle archaeologists
When you buy through links on our articles, Future and its syndication partners may earn a commission. An 800-year-old mummy donated to a museum in Italy a century ago has revealed new clues about ancient face tattoos. But the mummy's origin remains shrouded in mystery. Some time prior to 1930, the mummy of an adult female was donated to the Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography (MAET) at the University of Turin, with no records of its archaeological context. The mummy recently caught the attention of a team of researchers due to the surprising presence of tattoos on her face. In a study published in the May-June issue of the Journal of Cultural Heritage, the international team of researchers detailed their analysis of the mummy and her tattoos, noting that they were extremely unusual both in their location and in the composition of the ink used to make them. The mummy has straight black hair cropped short and is tightly flexed into a seated position, typical of mummy burials in the Andes. Researchers carbon-dated textile fragments stuck to the body and determined the woman died between A.D. 1215 and 1382. "On the basis of current evidence — particularly preservation, body placement, associated materials and documents — a South American origin is strongly supported," study lead author Gianluigi Mangiapane, an anthropologist at the University of Turin, told Live Science in an email. Related: Lasers reveal hidden patterns in tattoos of 1,200-year-old Peru mummies But while looking closely at the mummy using infrared reflectography, a technique often used to "see through" paint layers of artwork to find older brush strokes, the research team noted a series of unusual tattoos: three lines on the mummy's right cheek, one line on the left cheek and an S-shape on the right wrist. "Skin marks on the face are rare among the groups of the ancient Andean region and even rarer on the cheeks," the researchers wrote in the study, and the S-shaped tattoo "is so far unique for the Andean region." To identify the ink used to make the tattoos, the researchers used a suite of non-destructive techniques. Although they expected to find evidence of charcoal in the ink, they instead discovered that the unusual ink was made with magnetite, an iron oxide mineral, with traces of the mineral augite. In South America, augite and magnetite can be found together in southern Peru, suggesting a potential homeland for the mummified woman. "There are a small number of ethnographic accounts from the Americas that describe the use of mineral or earth pigments such as hematite or magnetite for tattooing, and the new study fits quite nicely with those," Aaron Deter-Wolf, an archaeologist at the Tennessee Division of Archaeology who was not involved in the study, told Live Science by email. But Deter-Wolf, who is an expert in ancient tattooing, is not convinced that the mystery mummy hails from the Andes. RELATED STORIES —People 'finger painted' the skulls of their ancestors red in the Andes a millennium ago —1,000-year-old mummy in fetal position found in underground tomb in Peru —'Pregnant' ancient Egyptian mummy with 'cancer' actually wasn't pregnant and didn't have cancer, new study finds "Stylistically, these particular face markings have far more in common with historic Arctic or Amazonian traditions than with Andean practices," Deter-Wolf said. "It would be fascinating to see what oxygen isotopes or other studies might be able to tell us about the origins of this individual." At this stage, though, isotope analyses have not been carried out. "Since these types of analyses are invasive, we have currently decided to limit such procedures in order to preserve the integrity of the remains," Mangiapane said. But the MAET that houses the mummy is interested in further investigation, Mangiapane said, and this may include future cultural comparisons to better understand the nature of the mysterious mummy's facial tattoos.
CNN
22-05-2025
- Science
- CNN
Tiny clawed tracks left in ancient mud are the oldest reptile footprints
Distinct clawed footprints found on a slab of 356 million-year-old rock from Australia suggest that reptile relatives appeared between 35 million and 40 million years earlier than previously believed. The tracks also push back the origin of amniotes, a group that includes reptiles, birds and mammals, and provide new evidence about how animals transitioned from existing solely in the seas to living on land. Amniotes represent a crucial part of the transition from aquatic to terrestrial life because they were the only tetrapods, or four-limbed creatures, that evolved to reproduce on land. Previously, the oldest body fossils and footprints associated with amniotes were dated to 318 million years ago in Canada. But the new findings, published on May 14 in the journal Nature, challenge such long-held assumptions and signal that the transformation of tetrapods living in water to living on land likely occurred much more rapidly than scientists thought. 'I'm stunned,' said study coauthor Per Erik Ahlberg, professor of evolution and developmental biology at Uppsala University in Sweden, in a statement. 'A single track-bearing slab, which one person can lift, calls into question everything we thought we knew about when modern tetrapods evolved.' The location of the discovery indicates that Australia, once a central part of the ancient southern supercontinent of Gondwana that also included present-day Africa, South America, Arabia, Madagascar, Antarctica and India, may be the ideal place to look for more amniote and reptile fossils — and where they originated, according to the study authors. The rock slab, found by amateur paleontologists and study coauthors Craig Eury and John Eason in the Snowy Plains Formation in Victoria, Australia, appears to show two sets of tracks from the same animal that represent the earliest clawed footprints ever discovered. The shape of the feet is similar to a modern water monitor's, and though the animal's exact size is unknown, it may have resembled a small goanna-like creature about 80 centimeters (31 inches) in length, said lead study author John Long, strategic professor in paleontology at Flinders University. Asian water monitors are large lizards native to South and Southeast Asia, while goannas are large lizards commonly found in Australia. Hooked claws, a key feature specific to reptiles, might have enabled the primitive tetrapod to dig and climb trees. The animal that made the footprints is the oldest known reptile and oldest known amniote, Ahlberg said. And it's helping scientists crack the code on how tetrapods evolved. 'Our new find implies that the two main evolutionary lines leading to modern tetrapods — one, the line to modern amphibians, and two, the line leading to reptiles, mammals and birds — diverged from each other much earlier in time than previously thought, likely back in the Devonian Period about 380 million years ago,' Long said. Prior to this finding, the Devonian Period was believed to be a time of primitive fishlike tetrapods and 'fishapods' like Tiktaalik, which exhibited traits of fish and early tetrapods and began to explore shorelines in limited ways. But the new study reveals a diversity of large and small tetrapods, some aquatic and others largely or entirely terrestrial, likely lived at the same time. 'One of the implications of our research is that tetrapod diversity at this time was higher, and included more advanced forms, than had been thought,' Ahlberg wrote in an email. It's crucial to understand when life shifted from being entirely aquatic to terrestrial because it is one of the biggest steps in the evolution of life, Long said. This transition showed that animals were no longer dependent on living in or near water. The transition occurred partly because amniotes evolved to reproduce with hard-shelled, rather than soft-shelled, eggs. 'The vertebrates' move onto land was an important part, and within that a key step was the evolution of the amniotic egg in the immediate common ancestors of reptiles and mammals,' Ahlberg said. 'So these events form a key episode in our own ancestry as well as the history of the planet.' The new study pushes the origin of amniotes much deeper into the Carboniferous Period, 299 million to 359 million years ago, which allows a much greater length of time for the diversification of early reptiles, said Stuart Sumida, president of the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology and professor of biology at California State University, San Bernardino. Sumida, who wrote an accompanying article to release with the study, did not participate in the new research. Long has been studying ancient fish fossils from the Mansfield district, where the slab was found, since 1980. 'The Mansfield area has produced many famous fossils, beginning with spectacular fossil fishes found 120 years ago, and ancient sharks. But the holy grail that we were always looking for was evidence of land animals, or tetrapods, like early amphibians. Many had searched for such trackways but never found them — until this slab arrived in our laboratory to be studied,' he said. Fossils from the Mansfield district have shed light on how sexual organs might have first evolved in ancient armored fish. Now, the researchers want to know what else lived in Gondwana alongside the ancient reptile they found. The findings have inspired researchers to broaden the search for fossils of the earliest amniotes, and their close relatives, to the southern continents, Sumida said. 'Most of the skeletal fossil discoveries of the earliest amniotes are known from continents derived from the northern components of Pangea,' Sumida said in an email. 'Discoveries there suggested that amniote origins might be in those regions. It seems clear to me now that we must now expand our search for Early Carboniferous localities in Australia, South America, and Africa.'
CNN
22-05-2025
- Science
- CNN
Tiny clawed tracks left in ancient mud are the oldest reptile footprints
Distinct clawed footprints found on a slab of 356 million-year-old rock from Australia suggest that reptile relatives appeared between 35 million and 40 million years earlier than previously believed. The tracks also push back the origin of amniotes, a group that includes reptiles, birds and mammals, and provide new evidence about how animals transitioned from existing solely in the seas to living on land. Amniotes represent a crucial part of the transition from aquatic to terrestrial life because they were the only tetrapods, or four-limbed creatures, that evolved to reproduce on land. Previously, the oldest body fossils and footprints associated with amniotes were dated to 318 million years ago in Canada. But the new findings, published on May 14 in the journal Nature, challenge such long-held assumptions and signal that the transformation of tetrapods living in water to living on land likely occurred much more rapidly than scientists thought. 'I'm stunned,' said study coauthor Per Erik Ahlberg, professor of evolution and developmental biology at Uppsala University in Sweden, in a statement. 'A single track-bearing slab, which one person can lift, calls into question everything we thought we knew about when modern tetrapods evolved.' The location of the discovery indicates that Australia, once a central part of the ancient southern supercontinent of Gondwana that also included present-day Africa, South America, Arabia, Madagascar, Antarctica and India, may be the ideal place to look for more amniote and reptile fossils — and where they originated, according to the study authors. The rock slab, found by amateur paleontologists and study coauthors Craig Eury and John Eason in the Snowy Plains Formation in Victoria, Australia, appears to show two sets of tracks from the same animal that represent the earliest clawed footprints ever discovered. The shape of the feet is similar to a modern water monitor's, and though the animal's exact size is unknown, it may have resembled a small goanna-like creature about 80 centimeters (31 inches) in length, said lead study author John Long, strategic professor in paleontology at Flinders University. Asian water monitors are large lizards native to South and Southeast Asia, while goannas are large lizards commonly found in Australia. Hooked claws, a key feature specific to reptiles, might have enabled the primitive tetrapod to dig and climb trees. The animal that made the footprints is the oldest known reptile and oldest known amniote, Ahlberg said. And it's helping scientists crack the code on how tetrapods evolved. 'Our new find implies that the two main evolutionary lines leading to modern tetrapods — one, the line to modern amphibians, and two, the line leading to reptiles, mammals and birds — diverged from each other much earlier in time than previously thought, likely back in the Devonian Period about 380 million years ago,' Long said. Prior to this finding, the Devonian Period was believed to be a time of primitive fishlike tetrapods and 'fishapods' like Tiktaalik, which exhibited traits of fish and early tetrapods and began to explore shorelines in limited ways. But the new study reveals a diversity of large and small tetrapods, some aquatic and others largely or entirely terrestrial, likely lived at the same time. 'One of the implications of our research is that tetrapod diversity at this time was higher, and included more advanced forms, than had been thought,' Ahlberg wrote in an email. It's crucial to understand when life shifted from being entirely aquatic to terrestrial because it is one of the biggest steps in the evolution of life, Long said. This transition showed that animals were no longer dependent on living in or near water. The transition occurred partly because amniotes evolved to reproduce with hard-shelled, rather than soft-shelled, eggs. 'The vertebrates' move onto land was an important part, and within that a key step was the evolution of the amniotic egg in the immediate common ancestors of reptiles and mammals,' Ahlberg said. 'So these events form a key episode in our own ancestry as well as the history of the planet.' The new study pushes the origin of amniotes much deeper into the Carboniferous Period, 299 million to 359 million years ago, which allows a much greater length of time for the diversification of early reptiles, said Stuart Sumida, president of the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology and professor of biology at California State University, San Bernardino. Sumida, who wrote an accompanying article to release with the study, did not participate in the new research. Long has been studying ancient fish fossils from the Mansfield district, where the slab was found, since 1980. 'The Mansfield area has produced many famous fossils, beginning with spectacular fossil fishes found 120 years ago, and ancient sharks. But the holy grail that we were always looking for was evidence of land animals, or tetrapods, like early amphibians. Many had searched for such trackways but never found them — until this slab arrived in our laboratory to be studied,' he said. Fossils from the Mansfield district have shed light on how sexual organs might have first evolved in ancient armored fish. Now, the researchers want to know what else lived in Gondwana alongside the ancient reptile they found. The findings have inspired researchers to broaden the search for fossils of the earliest amniotes, and their close relatives, to the southern continents, Sumida said. 'Most of the skeletal fossil discoveries of the earliest amniotes are known from continents derived from the northern components of Pangea,' Sumida said in an email. 'Discoveries there suggested that amniote origins might be in those regions. It seems clear to me now that we must now expand our search for Early Carboniferous localities in Australia, South America, and Africa.'
