Latest news with #southernAfrica
Al Jazeera
3 days ago
- General
- Al Jazeera
Namibia marks inaugural Genocide Remembrance Day with call for reparations
Namibia has held its first Genocide Remembrance Day to commemorate tens of thousands of Herero and Nama people killed by German colonisers in the early 1900s, in what is widely considered the first genocide of the 20th century. The southern African country's president, Netumbo Nandi-Ndaitwah, speaking at the event Wednesday, called again for reparations for the at least 70,000 Indigenous people killed by German troops from 1904 to 1908. Germany, which colonised Namibia from 1884 to 1915, previously acknowledged the genocide in 2021, but talks on reparations stretching back to 2013 have been fruitless. 'We should find a degree of comfort in the fact that the German government has agreed that the German troops committed a genocide against the … people of our land,' Nandi-Ndaitwah said at the ceremony held in the gardens of Namibia's parliament. 'We must remain committed that as a nation, we shall soldier on until the ultimate conclusion is reached,' she said. For its part, Germany released a statement earlier this week, reiterating that it 'acknowledges Germany's moral and political responsibility [for the killings] and emphasises the importance of reconciliation'. Berlin has previously pledged more than one billion euros ($1bn) in development aid over 30 years to benefit the descendants of the two targeted tribes, while stressing the funding should not be seen as payment of reparations. No agreement has been signed and Herero and Nama descendants have said they were excluded from the talks. At Wednesday's commemoration, candles were lit in honour of the victims and a minute of silence was followed by songs and speeches. The memorial was attended by about 1,000 people, including the German ambassador to Namibia. The Herero tribe revolted against German colonisers in January 1904, with the smaller Nama tribe joining the next year. The crackdown by German troops sent tens of thousands of people fleeing towards neighbouring Botswana. Then, in October 1904, German General Lothar von Trotha, under the command of German leader Kaiser Wilhelm II, signed a notorious 'extermination order' against the Herero. 'Within the German boundaries, every Herero, with or without a gun, with or without livestock, will be shot dead,' the order said. Between 1904 and 1908, at least 60,000 Herero and 10,000 Nama people were killed, many at German-run concentration camps, although some estimates put the death toll higher. Hundreds of Herero and Nama were also beheaded after being killed, with their skulls brought back to Germany for 'scientific' experiments meant to prove racial superiority. Since 2008, Namibian officials have demanded the bones be returned. Germany has complied, with ceremonial transfers in 2011 and 2018. Speaking to Al Jazeera, Israel Kaunatjike, a Herero activist who spearheaded the initiative 'No Amnesty on Genocide', called it a 'scandal' that no official memorial of the genocide has been held since Namibia gained independence from South Africa's control in 1990. 'It is very, very important for us today to celebrate, to remember those who lost their lives,' said Kaunatjike, who noted May 28 marked the day in 1908 the concentration camps were closed in then-German South West Africa. Kaunatjike added that any agreement that did not include reparations, and the return of Herero and Nama land still owned by descendants of German settlers, would be inadequate.
Yahoo
11-05-2025
- Science
- Yahoo
When was math invented?
When you buy through links on our articles, Future and its syndication partners may earn a commission. Mathematics is the basis of all science and has come a long way since humans started counting. But when did people start doing math? The answer is complicated because abstract mathematics is thought to be different from counting — although counting is the foundation of math — and because many advanced types of mathematics, such as calculus, were developed only within the past few hundred years. Humans couldn't have mastered complex and abstract math without figuring out how to count first, and evidence suggests our species was counting tens of thousands of years ago. The Ishango bone from Africa's Congo region indicates that Homo sapiens have been making "tallies" — a kind of counting — for at least 20,000 years. The 4-inch-long (10 centimeters) bone, probably from a baboon or a bobcat, was found in the 1950s. Researchers think the dozens of parallel notches cut into its surface were a "tally" — a recorded count of some unknown item — and in 1970, archaeologist Alexander Marshack argued it was a six-month lunar calendar. There's also the Lebombo bone, which was unearthed in southern Africa in the 1970s and was made about 43,000 years ago. It, too, is covered with cut notches and may have been a tally for the 29 days of a lunar month or for a human menstrual cycle. Danish historian of mathematics Jens Høyrup told Live Science that the very ancient origins of counting could never be known but that it might have been inspired by observations of the night sky by early Homo sapiens, before our species left Africa. "There was no artificial light then, only the fires within caves," he said. "And when you have no light pollution, the moon and the stars are a wonder to look at." Related: When did humans discover how to use fire? The next major step in mathematics came with the ancient Sumerians, who are also credited — perhaps coincidently — with inventing cuneiform, the earliest known type of writing. The Sumerians were one of the first Mesopotamian civilizations, and their city-states thrived in what's now southern Iraq from about 4500 to 1900 B.C. Among their key contributions were numerals that could be written on clay tablets in cuneiform's wedge-shaped marks, and the sexagesimal number system, which is the traditional base-60 system still used today for trigonometry, navigation and timekeeping. Mathematics, as opposed to simple counting, is the study of patterns and relationships using logical reasoning and abstract concepts. The ancient Sumerians developed the concepts of arithmetic — including tables for multiplication and division — and algebra, where unknown quantities were represented by symbols. They also developed formulas to calculate the areas of triangles, rectangles and irregular shapes, with which they measured land and designed irrigation systems. St. Lawrence University mathematician Duncan Melville told Live Science these developments were driven by the growing Sumerian bureaucracy. "Record-keepers needed to know not just what came into or left their stores, but how much or how many," he said in an email. Different mathematical notations were used depending on what was measured, and Sumerian scribes converted between these systems in tasks such as finding the area of a field from its measurements. "In this way we see the beginnings of arithmetic and computational geometry," he said. In addition to the developments of the Sumerians and their Mesopotamian successors, especially the Babylonians, early mathematical expertise and innovations came from ancient Egypt, Greece, India and China, and later from the Islamic civilization. Mathematics flourished in early modern Europe, where two scientists both claimed to have invented calculus — a way to determine the geometric area enclosed by any curve and an important advance in mathematics that underpins much of modern engineering and science. RELATED MYSTERIES —What was the longest-lasting civilization? —What was the first alphabet in the world? —When was steel invented? One was Isaac Newton, who said he'd invented calculus for his 1687 work "Principia Mathematica" (although he called his calculus "the method of fluxions"), and the other was the German polymath Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, who had published a mathematical system of differentials and integrals a few years earlier. (His notation is still used today.) The two men and their supporters engaged in a bitter dispute about who deserved recognition for the invention, which included allegations that Leibniz had snuck a look at Newton's unpublished manuscript. But historians now think Newton and Leibniz developed calculus independently of each other.
