King Rajendra Chola's military expedition to the Gangetic plains that inspired the building of Gangaikonda Cholapuram

The Hindu

18-07-2025

The stone edifice of Gangaikonda Cholisvaram, the Shiva temple more famously known as the Brihadisvara Temple, dominates the skyline of the Gangaikonda Cholapuram, a nondescript village in Udayarpalayam taluk of Ariyalur district in Tamil Nadu. It is hard to believe that the place was a throbbing capital of the Imperial Cholas for about 250 years. The city, its temple, and its massive lake called Chola Gangam remain the embodiment of the signal achievements of Rajendra Chola I (regnal years 1012-1044 CE).
Rajendra Chola I is famed for his exploits, but his military expedition to the Gangetic plains about a thousand years ago remains one of the most celebrated in the history of the Chola dynasty. The Tiruvalangadu, Esalam, and Karanthai Copper Plates, several inscriptions, and literary works celebrate his victory and the construction of the Brihadisvara Temple, listed as one of the three great living Chola temples by UNESCO.
Rajendra himself celebrated the victory by assuming the title 'Gangaikonda Cholan'. He also built Gangaikonda Cholapuram, along with the Gangaikonda Cholisvaram — the jewel in his crown that rivals the Rajarajeswaram (also known as Brihadisvara Temple) built by his father in Thanjavur — and the Chola Gangam, excavated as a jalasthambam, a liquid pillar of victory.
Water from the Ganga
During the expedition to the Gangetic plains, Rajendra Chola I defeated several kings and chieftains, including the Kalinga ruler and the Pala ruler Mahipala of Bengal. According to the Tiruvalangadu Copper Plates, the vanquished kings were made to carry the Ganga water on their heads to Gangaikonda Cholapuram. The water was poured into the Chola Gangam, now known as Ponneri. Rajendra Chola I also brought several beautiful Chalukya and Kalinga sculptures as war trophies.
But why did Rajendra Chola I shift his capital from Thanjavur? Many historians believe that one of the reasons could be that he wanted a bigger well-planned city to accommodate his huge army and serve his mercantile interests better. R. Nagasamy, the first Director of the Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology, however, holds an interesting view. Rajendra Chola I, he says, probably had a 'sentimental attachment' to the place which inspired him to attain phenomenal success, though it was unheard of even as a village when he came to the throne.
'Tanjavur had been the Chola capital ever since it had been captured from the Muttaraiya chieftains by Vijayalaya... Tanjavur served the interests of the Cholas well... Yet, within a few years of the erection of the great temple [Rajarajeswaram] and within a few years of his [Raja Raja I] passing, his son, Rajendra, shifted his capital to Gangaikonda Cholapuram. Was this because Gangaikonda Cholapuram served strategic purpose better than Tanjavur (but Tanjavur had better claims with its fortifications and natural river barriers)! No answer is possible except for a suggestion that it was probably here that Rajendra resolved to despatch a military expedition to the Gangetic plain,' says Nagasamy in his book, Gangaikondacholapuram, published by the department in 1970.
Gangaikonda Cholapuram remained the capital from 1025 CE till the fall of the Chola dynasty till 1279 CE. 'As the capital of the Cholas from about 1025 AD for the about 250 years, the city controlled the affairs of entire south India, from the Tungabhadra in the north to Ceylon in the south,' says Nagasamy. It was the second largest and important city in the 11th-12th Centuries and the centre of political, commercial and cultural activities, like Madurai in Pandyanadu and Karur in Cheranadu, says Natana Kasinathan, another former Director of the Department of Archaeology. Yet, there is no inscription of Rajendra Chola I in the Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple, a spectacular gallery of Chola art and architecture. It is from an inscription of his son Vira Rajendra that it is known that his father had built the temple. Details about the palace and other parts of the city are found in the epigraphs of Rajendra's successors, says Kasinathan in his book, The Metropolis of Medieval Cholas. The inscription of Vira Rajendra, the third son of Rajendra, refers to the palace at Gangaikonda Cholapuram as Chola-Keralan Thirumaaligai, evidently named after one of the titles of Rajendra I.
Bustling city once
Gangaikonda Cholapuram had been a bustling city with a fort, palaces, and well-planned streets. 'In an inscription dated in the 49th year of Kulottunga (1119 AD,) a reference is made to Gangaikondachola maaligai at this place. It is likely that there were more than one royal building, each having its own name. Besides, the names of the palace and fort walls, the names of a few roads and streets are preserved in the epigraphs,' says Kasinathan.
The city is celebrated in Tamil literature too. An elaborate description of the citadel comes from Muvar Ula of Ottakuttar. Rajaraja Cholan Ula gives an account of almost all the important places of the city. The city is referred to as Gangapuri in Kalingattuparani, composed by Jayankondar.
Though there have been attempts to excavate and showcase the past glory of the city in the recent times, the fortunes of Gangaikonda Cholapuram seems to have come a full circle. 'This capital of the most powerful empire in Asia at one time is now desolate, only the temple survives. To those who know of the brilliant history of the Chola empire, it is a tragedy,' writes Nagasamy. As he explains, the Pandyas, who put an end to the Chola empire in the 13th Century, avenging their defeats, 'should have razed the city to the ground'. One thousand years have passed since the sacred Ganga water was brought to this city, and the millennium deserves to be commemorated as a fitting tribute to the emperor who founded the city, says R. Komagan, chairman, Gangaikonda Cholapuram Development Council Trust.