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Indian Express
28-07-2025
- General
- Indian Express
Daily subject-wise static quiz: History and Culture MCQs on the Chola dynasty, Travellers in Indian history, Folk dance and more (Week 119)
Are you preparing for UPSC CSE Prelims? UPSC Essentials brings to you its initiative of daily subject-wise quizzes. These quizzes are designed to help you revise some of the most important topics from the static part of the syllabus. Attempt today's subject quiz on History and Culture to check your progress. 🚨 Click Here to read the UPSC Essentials magazine for July 2025. Share your views and suggestions in the comment box or at Which of the following parts of a temple structure is not correctly matched? (a) entry hall : mukhamaṇḍapa (b) pillared hall : ardhamaṇḍapa (c) vestibule : gopuram (d) sanctum : garbhagṛha A standard Chola temple was configured along an east-west axis, consisting of an entry hall (mukhamaṇḍapa), a pillared hall (ardhamaṇḍapa), a vestibule (antarāl̥a), and a sanctum (garbhagṛha) sheltered by a Tamil Draviḍa–style superstructure. Therefore, c is the correct answer. (For more, refer:Why Chola architecture represents a high watermark in the evolution of temple by Ajeya Vajpayee, UPSC Essentials, The Indian Express) Which Chola King returned with the water of the Ganga to sanctify and commemorate his victory at a new capital in his homeland, called Gangaikondacholapuram, after his successful campaign in the north? (a) Rajaraja I (b) Rajaraja II (c) Rajendra I (d) Rajendra II Rājarāja's heir, Rajendra I, after his successful campaign in the north, returned with the water of the Ganga to sanctify and commemorate his victory at a new capital in his homeland, called Gangaikoṇḍacōl̥apuram ('City of the Chola who conquered the Ganges'). Therefore, c is the correct answer. (For more, refer:Why Chola architecture represents a high watermark in the evolution of temple by Ajeya Vajpayee, UPSC Essentials, The Indian Express) With reference to 'Kudavolai system' consider the following statements: 1. It is an ancient taxation system. 2. The system finds its mention in the Uttaramerur Inscriptions. Which of the above given statements is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 As chronicled by K A Nilakanta Sastri in The Cholas (1935), the Chola administrative framework was built on two foundational units: the Sabha for Brahmin settlements and the Ur for non-Brahmin villages. These were not symbolic councils but elected bodies with real powers over revenue, irrigation, temple management, and even justice. 'It was democracy at the grassroots — built into the fabric of Tamil civic life,' Sastri wrote in Chapter VIII, 'Local Self-Government'. But what made the system particularly striking was the method of voting, a process called the Kudavolai system or 'ballot pot' election. Under this method, as detailed in the Uttaramerur Inscriptions documented in Epigraphia Indica Vol. XXII (1933–34), the names of eligible candidates were inscribed on palm leaves and placed inside a pot. A young boy, typically chosen for his impartiality, would draw the lot in full public view. This randomised draw was not a game of chance but a civic ritual rooted in transparency, fairness, and collective consent. Therefore, b is the correct answer. (For more, refer: Long before Magna Carta, Cholas had 'ballot pots': What is the ancient voting system PM Modi lauded? by Arun Janardhanan, The Indian Express) Manigramam and Ayyavole in the history of South India are closely related to: (a) Martial art (b) Classical music (c) Merchant guilds (d) None of the above Anirudh Kanisetti notes in Lords of the Earth and Sea (Penguin, 2023): the Chola model of statecraft relied heavily on decentralised administrative systems. By empowering merchant guilds such as the Manigramam and Ayyavole, and sustaining local assemblies, the Cholas expanded both trade and legitimacy. Therefore, c is the correct answer. (For more, refer: Long before Magna Carta, Cholas had 'ballot pots': What is the ancient voting system PM Modi lauded? by Arun Janardhanan, The Indian Express) Consider the following statements: 1. Barahmasa, a poetic tradition that emerged in medieval South India, lent itself to other forms such as paintings, which were patronised by the Vijayanagar Empire. 2. Meghaduta, the classical sanskrit poem, tells the story of a yaksha who longs for his wife and uses a cloud as a messenger. Which of the above given statements is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Kalidasa's Meghaduta The classical Sanskrit poem, Meghaduta, by Kalidasa has lent itself as a theme to artists painting the monsoon. The poem tells the story of a yaksha who longs for his wife and uses a cloud as a messenger. Barahmasa painting The Barahmasa is a poetic tradition that emerged in medieval North India. It usually revolved around the theme of a woman longing for her lover, and described her emotional state in context of the season of the year. The Barahmasa, as the name suggests, refers to the '12 months'. With time, the genre lent itself to other forms of art, including dance, music and paintings. The Barahmasa paintings began developing during the Mughal rule and were at their peak during the 18th and 19th centuries. Among these paintings, the ones depicting the monsoon months are known to be the most evocative, with passionate rendering of colours and textures to show young lovers staring at clouds, or the lush countryside. Therefore, b is the correct answer. (For more, refer:Painting the rain: How Indian art obsesses with the monsoons by Adrija Roychowdhury, The Indian Express) Consider the following states of India: 1. Arunachal Pradesh 2. Meghalaya 3. Nagaland 4. Mizoram 5. Manipur 6. Sikkim 7. Tripura Which of the above states were part of colonial Assam before Independence? (a) 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6 only (b) 1, 2, 3 and 4 only (c) 2, 3, 4, 5 and 7 only (d) All of the above The Northeast Northeast India officially comprises eights states — Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim, and Tripura — which are a part of the North-Eastern Council, a statutory advisory body that plays a role in development planning, and region-level policy making. Pre-Independence, five of these eight present-day states (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Mizoram) were a part of colonial Assam. Manipur and Tripura were princely states, with resident British political officers answering to the governor of Assam. Sikkim, the most unique of the eight, was juridically independent but under British paramountcy. It became an independent country in 1947, before being annexed by India in 1975. In 2001 Sikkim was made a member of the North Eastern Council, and thus officially a part of the Northeast. Therefore, b is the correct answer. (For more, refer: How the Northeast was 'invented', 52 years ago by Sanjib Baruah, The Indian Express) With reference to the travellers in Indian history, consider the following statements: 1. Italian traveller, Pietro Della Valle visited India during the reign of Krishnadevaraya. 2. Moroccan traveler, Ibn Battuta visited India during the reign of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq. Which of the statements given up is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Pietro Della Valle visited Gujarat in 1623, during the reign of Mughal emperor Jahangir. Della Valle remained in Surat for about 40 days and received the utmost kindness and civility from the Presidents of both the English and Dutch factories. He was impressed by the equality enjoyed by all Mughal subjects in the town and the liberty they had to pursue their normal avocations and to amass wealth. He describes the famous Gopi Talav, which was built by the Hindu Governor of Surat during the reign of Sultan Muzaffar II from 1511 to 1527. He refers to it as a 'very large tank' that is surrounded by stonework and features numerous sides and angles. There are stairs leading down to the water's surface. The diameter of the tank is stated to be two good furlongs. Such reservoirs were commonly constructed by rulers or wealthy individuals for the public's benefit due to the scarcity of running water, as many towns relied solely on rainwater collected in these large tanks. Therefore, b is the correct answer. (For more, refer: 17th-century Gujarat through eyes of an Italian traveller by Amarjit Singh, The Indian Express ) With reference to Laho, consider the following statements: 1. Laho is a folk dance of Meghalaya's Jaintia hill region. 2. It is famous among the Pnar tribal community and an integral part of the Behdienkhlam festival. Which of the above given statements is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Laho Laho hails from the cool, green Meghalaya's Jaintia hill region. It is an integral part of the Behdienkhlam festival, which is held annually to invoke divine blessings and to get rid of bad spirits. It is famous among the Pnar tribal community in Meghalaya. The synchronisation and harmony of the dance are noteworthy. Instead of musical instruments, a man recites couplets during the performance. Both men and women take part in the dance and wear colourful costumes and jewellery. This folk dance is also popular among the Harp tribe of the state but is called a different name, Wangala Dance. Therefore, c is the correct answer. (For more, refer: International Dance Day 2023– Here are 5 lesser-known folk dance forms of India, The Indian Express) Subscribe to our UPSC newsletter and stay updated with the news cues from the past week. Stay updated with the latest UPSC articles by joining our Telegram channel – IndianExpress UPSC Hub, and follow us on Instagram and X. Manas Srivastava is currently working as Senior Copy Editor with The Indian Express (digital) and leads a unique initiative of IE - UPSC Essentials. He majorly writes on UPSC, other competitive exams and education-related projects. In the past, Manas has represented India at the G-20 Youth Summit in Mexico. He is a former member of the Youth Council, GOI. A two-time topper/gold medallist in History (both in graduation and post-graduation) from Delhi University, he has mentored and taught UPSC aspirants for more than five years. His diverse role in The Indian Express consists of writing, editing, anchoring/ hosting, interviewing experts, and curating and simplifying news for the benefit of students. He hosts the YouTube talk show called 'Art and Culture with Devdutt Pattanaik' and a LIVE series on Instagram and YouTube called 'LIVE with Manas'.His talks on 'How to read a newspaper' focus on newspaper reading as an essential habit for students. His articles and videos aim at finding solutions to the general queries of students and hence he believes in being students' editor, preparing them not just for any exam but helping them to become informed citizens. This is where he makes his teaching profession meet journalism. He is also the editor of UPSC Essentials' monthly magazine for the aspirants. He is a recipient of the Dip Chand Memorial Award, the Lala Ram Mohan Prize and Prof. Papiya Ghosh Memorial Prize for academic excellence. He was also awarded the University's Post-Graduate Scholarship for pursuing M.A. in History where he chose to specialise in Ancient India due to his keen interest in Archaeology. He has also successfully completed a Certificate course on Women's Studies by the Women's Studies Development Centre, DU. As a part of N.S.S in the past, Manas has worked with national and international organisations and has shown keen interest and active participation in Social Service. He has led and been a part of projects involving areas such as gender sensitisation, persons with disability, helping slum dwellers, environment, adopting our heritage programme. He has also presented a case study on 'Psychological stress among students' at ICSQCC- Sri Lanka. As a compere for seminars and other events he likes to keep his orating hobby alive. His interests also lie in International Relations, Governance, Social issues, Essays and poetry. ... Read More
Indian Express
24-07-2025
- General
- Indian Express
Why Chola architecture represents a high watermark in the evolution of temple
— Ajeya Vajpayee A number of stone shrines associated with the Chola dynasty stand in the Kaveri basin, between the historical regions of Tondaimandalam and Madurai. Their territory is widely recognised as Cōl̥amaṇḍalam, 'the land of the Cholas'. The Cholas were known as early as the 3rd century BCE through the Aśokan inscriptions, and in the first two centuries CE through Sangama literature. But their significant reemergence and control of the Kaveri region began in the ninth century CE under Vijayālaya Chola. The initial phase of Chola temple architecture during the consolidation of their political power in Tanjore (Thanjavur) was modest. It consisted of single-storey shrines with square or octagonal towers, indicating a Pallava bearing. Numerous epigraphs on surviving stone shrines suggest the existence of an earlier tradition. It indicates that these stone shrines were constructed as replacements for earlier brick shrines under the aegis of Sembiyan Mahādēvi, the queen of Gaṇḍarāditya. Amidst much confusion regarding the patronage and time period of the early shrines – such as Narttamalai Vijayālaya Cōlīśvara, Pullamangai Brahmāpurīśvara, and Kumbhakonam Nagēśvara – the limitations of using dynastic labels to define art become relevant. What is Chola architectural style? What defines a structure as Chola? Is it royal or allied patronage? Its location within the Chola political domain? Or the fact that it was constructed during their period of power? Nevertheless, three royal temples – the Tanjore Brihadēśvara, Gangaikoṇḍacōl̥apuram, and Darasuram Airavatēśvara – built between the 11th and 12th centuries CE, best delineate what is considered the Chola style. A standard Chola temple was configured along an east-west axis, consisting of an entry hall (mukhamaṇḍapa), a pillared hall (ardhamaṇḍapa), a vestibule (antarāl̥a), and a sanctum (garbhagṛha) sheltered by a Tamil Draviḍa–style superstructure. The state temples, such as the Brihadēśvara at Tanjore (Thanjavur), Gangaikoṇḍacōl̥apuram, and Airavatēśvara at Darasuram, were laid out in a manner that they served as focal points of their capitals. These shrines not only outweigh the earlier shrines in terms of their spatial elaboration, but also in their overwhelming monumentality. Rājarāja's Brihadēśvara temple at Tanjore of the 11th century CE is constructed on elevated ground encircled by a moat. It consists of a mukhamaṇḍapa (entry hall), an ardhamaṇḍapa (pillared hall), an antarāl̥a (vestibule), a two-levelled shrine with a circumambulatory path, and a fourteen-tiered tower, originally crowned by a gold-plated stupi (finial), and a copper kalaśa. The vimana (shrine plus superstructure) of the Brihadēśvara measures approximately 60 metres, twice the size of its predecessors. The large courtyard also features a Nandi maṇḍapa, two large gopurams (gateways) of three and five storeys, topped by a barrel-vaulted roof (śālā), the now absent brick palace of Rājarāja – which was once connected to the main temple on the north – and the allied shrine of Candēśvara. In its transition from the Pallava tradition, where gopurams served as an entrance to the temple complex, the Brihadēśvara gopurams began reflecting the aesthetics of the shrine and eventually surpassed them in size. Rājarāja's heir, Rajendra I, after his successful campaign in the north, returned with the water of the Ganga to sanctify and commemorate his victory at a new capital in his homeland, called Gangaikoṇḍacōl̥apuram ('City of the Chola who conquered the Ganges'). There, he built a Śiva temple similar in form to Tanjore Brihadēśvara, but smaller in scale, which rises up to 50 meters. An extensively columned hall, bearing 150 pillars, is attached to the shrine at Gangaikoṇḍacōl̥apuram, setting a precedent that would be followed hereafter. Sculptures in stone and bronze, and murals adorned the exteriors and interiors of the Chola temples. However, they lacked the rhythm and flexibility of the early corpus, partly because of their large dimension. The sculptural remains in various media were not only aesthetic and religious in nature but also carried strong political connotations. For instance, the Brihadēśvara temple, also called Rājarājēśvaram-uṭaiyar after its patron king, features 38 depictions of Śiva as Tripurāntaka, the four-armed, bow-wielding cosmic warrior. Of these, 37 are stone sculptures, and one is a mural. These are located on the two-storey walls, base, and gopuram of the temple. According to Gerd Mevissen, these depictions assert his dominance, identify him with the deity, and serve as protective statues to ward off rivals such as the Rāṣṭr̥akūṭas, Kalyāṇi Cālukyas, Pāṇḍyas, Cēras, and Simhalas. Similarly, the maṇḍapa of Rājarāja II's Darasuram Airavatēśvara temple, constructed in the mid-12th century CE, features several Tripurāntaka images on its walls, pillars, and base. This temple, ingeniously conceived in the form of a chariot (rathamaṇḍapa), features the Tripurāntaka imagery and myth. According to Gerd Mevissen, this imagery is used as a trope to invoke the deity, 'who is worshipped for bringing death to enemies', and to regain and restore their waning power over rivals. The widespread use of Tripurāntaka imagery in Chōl̥a temples is thus regarded as an extension of the political allusion. At Rājasiṁha's Kanchipuram Kailāśanātha, the imagery was directed at their rival, the Badami Calukyas. Living world of Chola temples The Chola period also produced many ritualistic bronze images of deities in portable sizes. Inscriptions reveal that the Brihadēśvara temple in Tanjore owned 66 bronze images of gods, saints, and Rājarāja himself. Among several royal commissions, the theatrical representation of Śiva's marriage with Parvati is noteworthy (Kalyāṇasundara). Śiva and Parvati stand flanking each other in graceful postures, their hands clasped. Laksmi, flanking Parvati, is depicted pushing the bashful bride towards the groom. Visnu, serving as their officiant, is carved on a separate pedestal. Temple inscriptions also record generous donations of gold and gem jewellery towards the bronze images. Rājarāja's Brihadēśvara temple served as the town's nucleus, supported by a large workforce dedicated to its maintenance. Epigraphs mention architects, sculptors, painters, bronze casters, jewellers, priests, and financial agents among those involved in its maintenance. The temple functioned not only as a religious site but also as the town's civic centre, educational hub, and bank. It hosted dance and music events as part of its rituals, with inscriptions noting 67 temple musicians: five sang Vedic hymns, four performed Tamil hymns (Tevaram), and five served as vocalists. The temple also loaned money at an interest rate of 12.5 per cent, with Candesa (an individual) serving as its financial agent. One recorded transaction states: 'We have received from Candesa, the first servant of the divine lord, 500 coins out of the money deposited'. However, the monumental projects of the Cholas began to decline in the 12th century CE as their influence over rivals diminished. Their grand architectural vision is reflected in the large complexes of the Vijayanagara and the temple towns built in the region afterwards. What are the distinguishing architectural designs of Chola temples? In what ways did these temples serve as political statements as much as religious structures? What spatial and structural innovations distinguish the Brihadēśvara temple from earlier South Indian temple traditions? How did these changes redefine the sacred space? In what ways do the temples at Tanjore, Gangaikoṇḍacōl̥apuram, and Darasuram represent a continuum and culmination of Chola architectural vision? How did the use of the Tripurāntaka imagery carried political connotation in Chola temples? What do epigraphic records about temple musicians, artisans, and financial agents reveal about the socio-economic structure and cultural life of Chola temple towns? (Ajeya holds a PhD in History from the University of Delhi. Her research focuses on the art historical traditions of India and South Asia.) Share your thoughts and ideas on UPSC Special articles with Subscribe to our UPSC newsletter and stay updated with the news cues from the past week. Stay updated with the latest UPSC articles by joining our Telegram channel – IndianExpress UPSC Hub, and follow us on Instagram and X.
Indian Express
23-06-2025
- General
- Indian Express
Daily subject-wise quiz: History and Culture MCQs on Indian architecture, terms from Buddhism, and more (Week 115)
Are you preparing for UPSC CSE Prelims? UPSC Essentials brings to you its initiative of daily subject-wise quizzes. These quizzes are designed to help you revise some of the most important topics from the static part of the syllabus. Attempt today's subject quiz on History and Culture to check your progress. Bālapañjara in the ancient temple architecture refers to: (a) sanctum (b) horseshoe arch (c) south Indian shrine (d) none of the above The Nāgara superstructure incorporated the āmalaka (fluted bulbous capstone of a Nāgara śikhara), gavākṣa (cow's eye motif or horseshoe arch), and bālapañjara (nāsī-roofed cage aedicule) over pillarlets. The Draviḍian vimāna (south Indian shrine) featured kūṭa (domed aedicule), śālā, (wagon-vault roofed aedicule), and bālapañjara. Therefore, d is the correct answer. (For more, refer: How Indian temple architecture is rooted in art, religion, and politics by Ajeya Vajpayee, The Indian Express) In the question given below, there are two statements marked as Assertion (A) and Reason (R). Mark your answer as per the codes provided: Assertion (A): The presiding deity of Chalukya king Vijayāditya at Pattadakal Sangamesvara was called Śrī-Vijayēśvara-Bhaṭṭāraka. Reason (R): Rulers named the presiding deities after themselves to assert their divine kingship. (a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A (b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A (c) A is true, but R is false (d) A is false, but R is true Temples were often patronised by powerful kings to revere their favourite deity as well as assert, consolidate, and legitimise their overlordship over an existing or new domain. For example, Rajaraja Cola built the Thanjavur Brihadesvara temple to assert his supremacy over the region. Rulers also named the presiding deities after themselves to assert their divine kingship. For example, the presiding deity of Chalukya king Vijayāditya at Pattadakal Sangamesvara was called Śrī-Vijayēśvara-Bhaṭṭāraka. Therefore, a is the correct answer. (For more, refer: How Indian temple architecture is rooted in art, religion, and politics by Ajeya Vajpayee, The Indian Express) Where did Mahatma Gandhi deliver his famous 'Do or Die' speech? (a) Ahmedabad (b) Mumbai (c) Sevagram (d) Johannesburg On August 8, 1942, Mahatma Gandhi addressed the people in the Gowalia Tank Maidan (now known as August Kranti Maidan), Bombay (Mumbai) where he delivered his famous 'Do or Die' speech. Therefore, b is the correct answer. (For more, refer: Quit India Movement –A fight for freedom from British rule, Aakanksha Jha, The Indian Express) Which of the following Viceroys of India was associated with the 'August Offer'? (a) Lord Linlithgow (b) Lord Mountbatten (c) Lord Irwin (d) Lord Dufferin In the exhausting summer of 1942, an even more exhaustive talk was underway in Delhi between Indian freedom fighters and a mission led by Sir Stafford Cripps. The mission was sent by then British Prime Minister Winston Churchill to secure India's support for the Second World War. Before Cripps, Lord Linlithgow, then Viceroy of India, made what is known as the 'August offer' in 1940 and proposed dominion status to India but with veto power to the Muslim League and other minority leaders. Therefore, a is the correct answer. (For more, refer: Quit India Movement –A fight for freedom from British rule, Aakanksha Jha, The Indian Express) She co-edited a newspaper called Inquilab with Lohia. Post-independence, she left the Congress for the Communist Party of India. There, she founded the National Federation of Indian Women – the women's wing of the Communist Party of India. Who is she referred to in the above lines? (a) Begum Nishatunnisa Mohani (b) Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay (c) Aruna Asaf Ali (d) Purnima Banerjee Aruna co-edited a newspaper called 'Inquilab' with Lohia and continued to struggle till 1946. Gandhi, particularly moved by her determination, wanted her to surrender. He wrote, 'I have been filled with admiration for your courage and heroism. You are reduced to a skeleton. Do come out and surrender yourself and win the prize offered for your arrest. Reserve the prize money for the Harijan (untouchables') cause.' Aruna, determined towards her socialist training only surrendered after the prize money over her was removed. Even after resurfacing and courting arrest, Aruna continued to voice her political opinions by supporting the Royal Indian Navy mutiny of HMIS (His Majesty's Indian Ship) Talwar. Post-independence, Aruna left the Congress for the Communist Party of India. There she created the 'National Federation of Indian Women'- women's wing of Communist Party of India. Aruna lost her husband in 1953. Asaf Ali by this time was the first ambassador to the United States from India. Although this role would have taken Aruna close to the Capitalist camp in the Cold War world, she chose to remain close to her ideological moorings. Therefore, c is the correct answer. (For more, refer: Quit India Movement –A fight for freedom from British rule, Aakanksha Jha, The Indian Express) What does the term vevanniyanti, as seen in Buddhism, refer to? (a) working for the benefit of others (b) the process whereby suffering arises and how it can be brought to cessation (c) intentions and actions have consequences (d) one who is devoid of varna The Buddha's dream of four birds of different types and colours flying in from four directions and sitting at his feet is often interpreted as symbolically showing that all varnas were part of Buddhism. Buddha also stated that anyone who joins the Sangha or the Buddhist monastic order becomes a vevanniyanti – one who is devoid of varna. Therefore, d is the correct answer. (For more, refer: How Buddhism shows the path to nirvana, Sreekala M V, The Indian Express) Consider the following statements: 1. Vaibhāsika and Sautrāntika are the philosophical sects of Hinayāna. 2. Yogācāra and Mādhyamika are the philosophical sects of Mahāyāna. Which of the statements given above is/are true? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 1. It is the conservative and orthodox form of Buddhism. Notably, followers of the older tradition described themselves as Theravadins, that is, those who followed the path of old, respected teachers, the theras. 2. It is spread in south and south-east Asia. Vaibhāsika and Sautrāntika are the philosophical sects of Hinayāna. 3. It emphasizes the historical existence of a single Buddha, Gautama Shakyamuni and upholds Buddha's original doctrines and disciplines. It believes in individual salvation through self-discipline and meditation. 4. Scriptures were written in the Pali language. Emperor Ashoka played a significant role in spreading Theravada Buddhism. 1. Mahayana Buddhism emerged around the 1st century CE, and its doctrines were further developed during the Fourth Buddhist Council convened by Kanishka in Kashmir. 2. It emphasises the concept of Bodhisattvas. Bodhisattvas were perceived as deeply compassionate beings who accumulated merit through their efforts but used this not to attain nibbana and thereby abandon the world but to help others. 3. Mahāyāna is prevalent in north and north-east Asia. Yogācāra and Mādhyamika are the philosophical sects of Mahāyāna. Therefore, c is the correct answer. (For more, refer: Knowledge Nugget | Conclave on Buddhism: Must-know teachings, paths, and sects of Buddhism for UPSC Exam, Roshni Yadav, The Indian Express) Who used the term 'Pakistan' for the first time in 1933? (a) Muhammad Ali Jinnah (b) Allama Iqbal (c) Choudhary Rehmat Ali (d) None of the above Muhammad Ali Jinnah is remembered as the founder of Pakistan, its 'Qaid e Azam', or the 'Great Leader.' He led a movement that transformed a weak idea of a sovereign Islamic state in British India's north western provinces into reality, thus shaping the subcontinent's politics for generations to come. But he was not the first to come up with the idea of Pakistan, nor was he its original champion. Instead, the man who did, is today relegated to a footnote in the history of the subcontinent. Choudhary Rehmat Ali can be credited with coining the 'term' Pakistan, styling himself as the 'Founder of the Pakistan National Movement'. On January 28, 1933, he released a pamphlet titled 'Now or Never: Are we to live or perish forever'. In it he made a vehement 'appeal on behalf of the thirty million Muslims of PAKISTAN, who live in the five Northern Units of India… for the recognition of their national status, as distinct from the other inhabitants of India, by the grant to Pakistan of a separate Federal Constitution on religious, social and historical grounds.' According to many historians, this can be seen as the genesis of the very idea of Pakistan; an idea which would become mainstream by the 1940s. Therefore, c is the correct answer. (For more, refer: Do you know who used 'Pakistan' for the first time on this day in 1933? No, it wasn't Jinnah, Arjun Sengupta, The Indian Express.) Subscribe to our UPSC newsletter and stay updated with the news cues from the past week. Stay updated with the latest UPSC articles by joining our Telegram channel – IndianExpress UPSC Hub, and follow us on Instagram and X. Manas Srivastava is currently working as Senior Copy Editor with The Indian Express (digital) and leads a unique initiative of IE - UPSC Essentials. He majorly writes on UPSC, other competitive exams and education-related projects. In the past, Manas has represented India at the G-20 Youth Summit in Mexico. He is a former member of the Youth Council, GOI. A two-time topper/gold medallist in History (both in graduation and post-graduation) from Delhi University, he has mentored and taught UPSC aspirants for more than four years. His diverse role in The Indian Express consists of writing, editing, anchoring/ hosting, interviewing experts, and curating and simplifying news for the benefit of students. He hosts the YouTube talk show called 'Art and Culture with Devdutt Pattanaik' and a LIVE series on Instagram and YouTube called 'You Ask We Answer'.His talks on 'How to read a newspaper' focus on newspaper reading as an essential habit for students. His articles and videos aim at finding solutions to the general queries of students and hence he believes in being students' editor, preparing them not just for any exam but helping them to become informed citizens. This is where he makes his teaching profession meet journalism. He is also the editor of UPSC Essentials' monthly magazine for the aspirants. He is a recipient of the Dip Chand Memorial Award, the Lala Ram Mohan Prize and Prof. Papiya Ghosh Memorial Prize for academic excellence. He was also awarded the University's Post-Graduate Scholarship for pursuing M.A. in History where he chose to specialise in Ancient India due to his keen interest in Archaeology. He has also successfully completed a Certificate course on Women's Studies by the Women's Studies Development Centre, DU. As a part of N.S.S in the past, Manas has worked with national and international organisations and has shown keen interest and active participation in Social Service. He has led and been a part of projects involving areas such as gender sensitisation, persons with disability, helping slum dwellers, environment, adopting our heritage programme. He has also presented a case study on 'Psychological stress among students' at ICSQCC- Sri Lanka. As a compere for seminars and other events he likes to keep his orating hobby alive. His interests also lie in International Relations, Governance, Social issues, Essays and poetry. ... Read More
Indian Express
13-06-2025
- General
- Indian Express
How Indian temple architecture is rooted in art, religion, and politics
— Ajeya Vajpayee Temples in the Indian subcontinent survive in an intelligible and coherent form from at least the fifth century CE. The tradition, however, dates back much earlier to the times when they were makeshift or built in perishable material. Artefacts associated with temples – like the Garuḍa pillar from Besnagar and Śivaliṇga from Gudimallan dated to around 120 BCE and 80 BCE, respectively – corroborate the antiquity of this tradition. The Indian temple architecture is broadly characterised by two overarching traditions, namely the Nāgara or northern building tradition and Draviḍa or southern building tradition. Although geographically defined, they are not exclusive to the two regions. In addition to these two, Indian art treatises include a third type of building tradition called the 'Vesara' or hybrid. The etymological bearing of the term has led scholars in the past to understand this category as a synthesis of the northern and southern artistic traditions and associate it with the geographically fitting Deccan region. The multi-storeyed exterior of the Nāgara and Draviḍa temples reflects their common ancestry from the Buddhist artistic tradition. Relief carvings on the gateways of Sanchi and Bharhut, and Mathura depict cities with gatehouses, mansions, and urban dwellings. The depiction showcasing visual images of dormer-windows, pillared balconies, railings, and domed structures evokes the structural temples. The facades of the later rock-cut caves at Kondane, Karle, Bhaja, and Ajanta (caves 1 and 19) display similar palatial arrangements. The multi-storeyed towers of the Nāgara and Draviḍa temples harbouring the garbhagɽha (sanctum) of the temple are composed of a string of aedicules (small temple forms). These are transformed through diminution, repetition, splitting, super-imposition, and contraction to achieve its decorative exterior. Each tradition uses different varieties of aedicules. For instance, the Nāgara superstructure incorporated the āmalaka (fluted bulbous capstone of a Nāgara śikhara), gavākṣa (cow's eye motif or horseshoe arch), and bālapañjara (nāsī-roofed cage aedicule) over pillarlets. The Draviḍian vimāna (south Indian shrine) featured kūṭa (domed aedicule), śālā, (wagon-vault roofed aedicule), and bālapañjara. In the process of their evolution, the functional storeys of these towers were reduced to surface applique. The degree of architectural compression varied in both traditions: the Draviḍian superstructures were contracted enough to retain their palatial or horizontal profile, while the Nāgara superstructures were condensed significantly. In the latter, the many layers within the horizontal storeys were condensed enough to be visually subsumed within the verticality of the spire, thereby losing and mutating its original structural provenance. The modest lineage of the temple architectural tradition was short-lived. The rock-cut, monolithic, and unpretentious structural shrines in timber, brick, and stone were swiftly supplanted by expansive structures. The caves of Barabar, Udayagiri, and Deccan, the stone shrines of Sanchi and Tigowa, the brick temples of Bhitargaon and Tala, and the monoliths of Mahabalipuram, to name a few, represent early attempts at temple building. The memory of timber shrines is captured in the rock-cut monuments of Deccan at Kondane, Karle, and Bhaja. Over time, stones of different varieties, owing to their durability, became the primary building material in the later centuries. In the south, it was, reluctantly, adopted later in the seventh century CE because of its association with the megaliths. In the rock-cut traditions, rocks from mountains were carved from ceiling to base-mouldings, using wooden pegs, iron chisels, and hammers. For the structural temples, the stone was dressed and placed horizontally, usually without mortar to achieve the desired form. The architectural transition owed to a range of religious, social, political, and economic necessities of the time. The religious and social necessities of ritual-based worship – such as darśan, pradakṣiṅa, puja backed by didactic texts – demanded an elaborate structure for the temple as opposed to the compact Buddhist caityas. The temples of the sixth-seventh centuries CE comprised a maṇḍapa (hall), garbhagṛha, and śikhara (superstructure). Religious merit accrued through temple construction attracted important individuals towards the cause, making the temple a public institution. Temples were often patronised by powerful kings to revere their favourite deity as well as assert, consolidate, and legitimise their overlordship over an existing or new domain. For example, Rajaraja Cola built the Thanjavur Brihadesvara temple to assert his supremacy over the region. Rulers also named the presiding deities after themselves to assert their divine kingship. For example, the presiding deity of Chalukya king Vijayāditya at Pattadakal Sangamesvara was called Śrī-Vijayēśvara-Bhaṭṭāraka. As asserted by Kesavan Veluthat, and echoed in the arguments of Alexis Sanderson, 'Patronage was not entirely without its return. It helped the patron to use the symbols of that religion for their benefit. This political use of religion included the use of its symbol for the purpose of political mobilisation and then using them as metaphors of power.' Simply put, religious institutions, such as temples, were patronised by rulers to meet political ends. Built with the same intent, small-scale temples and miniature shrines often accompanied big ones owing to meagre patronage by disadvantaged individuals. As public institutions, temples also served as monasteries and focal points of community activity. In an inscription from the Alampur Bala Brahma, the temple's function as a monastery is highlighted in the establishment of an asylum and hospital for the ill and for sick cattle. The same inscription also elucidates the disposition of land grants towards organising musical programmes within temples. The development of Indian temple architecture is rooted in a complex interplay of art, religion, politics, and society. While it began modestly, it developed into a sophisticated tradition that varied across regions yet maintained a coherent cultural identity. What are the two main architectural traditions of Indian temples, and how are they geographically defined? What is the Vesara tradition, and how has it been historically interpreted? What are aedicules, and how do they contribute to the decorative features of Nāgara and Drāviḍa temple towers? What early sites and structures represent the beginnings of temple building in India? How does temple architecture reflect the intersection of religion and politics in early India? (Ajeya holds a PhD in History from the University of Delhi. Her research focuses on the art historical traditions of India and South Asia.) Share your thoughts and ideas on UPSC Special articles with Subscribe to our UPSC newsletter and stay updated with the news cues from the past week. Stay updated with the latest UPSC articles by joining our Telegram channel – IndianExpress UPSC Hub, and follow us on Instagram and X.
