Why Chola architecture represents a high watermark in the evolution of temple
A number of stone shrines associated with the Chola dynasty stand in the Kaveri basin, between the historical regions of Tondaimandalam and Madurai. Their territory is widely recognised as Cōl̥amaṇḍalam, 'the land of the Cholas'.
The Cholas were known as early as the 3rd century BCE through the Aśokan inscriptions, and in the first two centuries CE through Sangama literature. But their significant reemergence and control of the Kaveri region began in the ninth century CE under Vijayālaya Chola.
The initial phase of Chola temple architecture during the consolidation of their political power in Tanjore (Thanjavur) was modest. It consisted of single-storey shrines with square or octagonal towers, indicating a Pallava bearing.
Numerous epigraphs on surviving stone shrines suggest the existence of an earlier tradition. It indicates that these stone shrines were constructed as replacements for earlier brick shrines under the aegis of Sembiyan Mahādēvi, the queen of Gaṇḍarāditya.
Amidst much confusion regarding the patronage and time period of the early shrines – such as Narttamalai Vijayālaya Cōlīśvara, Pullamangai Brahmāpurīśvara, and Kumbhakonam Nagēśvara – the limitations of using dynastic labels to define art become relevant.
What is Chola architectural style?
What defines a structure as Chola? Is it royal or allied patronage? Its location within the Chola political domain? Or the fact that it was constructed during their period of power? Nevertheless, three royal temples – the Tanjore Brihadēśvara, Gangaikoṇḍacōl̥apuram, and Darasuram Airavatēśvara – built between the 11th and 12th centuries CE, best delineate what is considered the Chola style.
A standard Chola temple was configured along an east-west axis, consisting of an entry hall (mukhamaṇḍapa), a pillared hall (ardhamaṇḍapa), a vestibule (antarāl̥a), and a sanctum (garbhagṛha) sheltered by a Tamil Draviḍa–style superstructure.
The state temples, such as the Brihadēśvara at Tanjore (Thanjavur), Gangaikoṇḍacōl̥apuram, and Airavatēśvara at Darasuram, were laid out in a manner that they served as focal points of their capitals. These shrines not only outweigh the earlier shrines in terms of their spatial elaboration, but also in their overwhelming monumentality.
Rājarāja's Brihadēśvara temple at Tanjore of the 11th century CE is constructed on elevated ground encircled by a moat. It consists of a mukhamaṇḍapa (entry hall), an ardhamaṇḍapa (pillared hall), an antarāl̥a (vestibule), a two-levelled shrine with a circumambulatory path, and a fourteen-tiered tower, originally crowned by a gold-plated stupi (finial), and a copper kalaśa. The vimana (shrine plus superstructure) of the Brihadēśvara measures approximately 60 metres, twice the size of its predecessors.
The large courtyard also features a Nandi maṇḍapa, two large gopurams (gateways) of three and five storeys, topped by a barrel-vaulted roof (śālā), the now absent brick palace of Rājarāja – which was once connected to the main temple on the north – and the allied shrine of Candēśvara. In its transition from the Pallava tradition, where gopurams served as an entrance to the temple complex, the Brihadēśvara gopurams began reflecting the aesthetics of the shrine and eventually surpassed them in size.
Rājarāja's heir, Rajendra I, after his successful campaign in the north, returned with the water of the Ganga to sanctify and commemorate his victory at a new capital in his homeland, called Gangaikoṇḍacōl̥apuram ('City of the Chola who conquered the Ganges'). There, he built a Śiva temple similar in form to Tanjore Brihadēśvara, but smaller in scale, which rises up to 50 meters. An extensively columned hall, bearing 150 pillars, is attached to the shrine at Gangaikoṇḍacōl̥apuram, setting a precedent that would be followed hereafter.
Sculptures in stone and bronze, and murals adorned the exteriors and interiors of the Chola temples. However, they lacked the rhythm and flexibility of the early corpus, partly because of their large dimension. The sculptural remains in various media were not only aesthetic and religious in nature but also carried strong political connotations.
For instance, the Brihadēśvara temple, also called Rājarājēśvaram-uṭaiyar after its patron king, features 38 depictions of Śiva as Tripurāntaka, the four-armed, bow-wielding cosmic warrior. Of these, 37 are stone sculptures, and one is a mural. These are located on the two-storey walls, base, and gopuram of the temple.
According to Gerd Mevissen, these depictions assert his dominance, identify him with the deity, and serve as protective statues to ward off rivals such as the Rāṣṭr̥akūṭas, Kalyāṇi Cālukyas, Pāṇḍyas, Cēras, and Simhalas.
Similarly, the maṇḍapa of Rājarāja II's Darasuram Airavatēśvara temple, constructed in the mid-12th century CE, features several Tripurāntaka images on its walls, pillars, and base. This temple, ingeniously conceived in the form of a chariot (rathamaṇḍapa), features the Tripurāntaka imagery and myth.
According to Gerd Mevissen, this imagery is used as a trope to invoke the deity, 'who is worshipped for bringing death to enemies', and to regain and restore their waning power over rivals. The widespread use of Tripurāntaka imagery in Chōl̥a temples is thus regarded as an extension of the political allusion. At Rājasiṁha's Kanchipuram Kailāśanātha, the imagery was directed at their rival, the Badami Calukyas.
Living world of Chola temples
The Chola period also produced many ritualistic bronze images of deities in portable sizes. Inscriptions reveal that the Brihadēśvara temple in Tanjore owned 66 bronze images of gods, saints, and Rājarāja himself.
Among several royal commissions, the theatrical representation of Śiva's marriage with Parvati is noteworthy (Kalyāṇasundara). Śiva and Parvati stand flanking each other in graceful postures, their hands clasped. Laksmi, flanking Parvati, is depicted pushing the bashful bride towards the groom. Visnu, serving as their officiant, is carved on a separate pedestal. Temple inscriptions also record generous donations of gold and gem jewellery towards the bronze images.
Rājarāja's Brihadēśvara temple served as the town's nucleus, supported by a large workforce dedicated to its maintenance. Epigraphs mention architects, sculptors, painters, bronze casters, jewellers, priests, and financial agents among those involved in its maintenance.
The temple functioned not only as a religious site but also as the town's civic centre, educational hub, and bank. It hosted dance and music events as part of its rituals, with inscriptions noting 67 temple musicians: five sang Vedic hymns, four performed Tamil hymns (Tevaram), and five served as vocalists.
The temple also loaned money at an interest rate of 12.5 per cent, with Candesa (an individual) serving as its financial agent. One recorded transaction states: 'We have received from Candesa, the first servant of the divine lord, 500 coins out of the money deposited'.
However, the monumental projects of the Cholas began to decline in the 12th century CE as their influence over rivals diminished. Their grand architectural vision is reflected in the large complexes of the Vijayanagara and the temple towns built in the region afterwards.
What are the distinguishing architectural designs of Chola temples? In what ways did these temples serve as political statements as much as religious structures?
What spatial and structural innovations distinguish the Brihadēśvara temple from earlier South Indian temple traditions? How did these changes redefine the sacred space?
In what ways do the temples at Tanjore, Gangaikoṇḍacōl̥apuram, and Darasuram represent a continuum and culmination of Chola architectural vision?
How did the use of the Tripurāntaka imagery carried political connotation in Chola temples?
What do epigraphic records about temple musicians, artisans, and financial agents reveal about the socio-economic structure and cultural life of Chola temple towns?
(Ajeya holds a PhD in History from the University of Delhi. Her research focuses on the art historical traditions of India and South Asia.)
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