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Indian Express
24-07-2025
- General
- Indian Express
Why Chola architecture represents a high watermark in the evolution of temple
— Ajeya Vajpayee A number of stone shrines associated with the Chola dynasty stand in the Kaveri basin, between the historical regions of Tondaimandalam and Madurai. Their territory is widely recognised as Cōl̥amaṇḍalam, 'the land of the Cholas'. The Cholas were known as early as the 3rd century BCE through the Aśokan inscriptions, and in the first two centuries CE through Sangama literature. But their significant reemergence and control of the Kaveri region began in the ninth century CE under Vijayālaya Chola. The initial phase of Chola temple architecture during the consolidation of their political power in Tanjore (Thanjavur) was modest. It consisted of single-storey shrines with square or octagonal towers, indicating a Pallava bearing. Numerous epigraphs on surviving stone shrines suggest the existence of an earlier tradition. It indicates that these stone shrines were constructed as replacements for earlier brick shrines under the aegis of Sembiyan Mahādēvi, the queen of Gaṇḍarāditya. Amidst much confusion regarding the patronage and time period of the early shrines – such as Narttamalai Vijayālaya Cōlīśvara, Pullamangai Brahmāpurīśvara, and Kumbhakonam Nagēśvara – the limitations of using dynastic labels to define art become relevant. What is Chola architectural style? What defines a structure as Chola? Is it royal or allied patronage? Its location within the Chola political domain? Or the fact that it was constructed during their period of power? Nevertheless, three royal temples – the Tanjore Brihadēśvara, Gangaikoṇḍacōl̥apuram, and Darasuram Airavatēśvara – built between the 11th and 12th centuries CE, best delineate what is considered the Chola style. A standard Chola temple was configured along an east-west axis, consisting of an entry hall (mukhamaṇḍapa), a pillared hall (ardhamaṇḍapa), a vestibule (antarāl̥a), and a sanctum (garbhagṛha) sheltered by a Tamil Draviḍa–style superstructure. The state temples, such as the Brihadēśvara at Tanjore (Thanjavur), Gangaikoṇḍacōl̥apuram, and Airavatēśvara at Darasuram, were laid out in a manner that they served as focal points of their capitals. These shrines not only outweigh the earlier shrines in terms of their spatial elaboration, but also in their overwhelming monumentality. Rājarāja's Brihadēśvara temple at Tanjore of the 11th century CE is constructed on elevated ground encircled by a moat. It consists of a mukhamaṇḍapa (entry hall), an ardhamaṇḍapa (pillared hall), an antarāl̥a (vestibule), a two-levelled shrine with a circumambulatory path, and a fourteen-tiered tower, originally crowned by a gold-plated stupi (finial), and a copper kalaśa. The vimana (shrine plus superstructure) of the Brihadēśvara measures approximately 60 metres, twice the size of its predecessors. The large courtyard also features a Nandi maṇḍapa, two large gopurams (gateways) of three and five storeys, topped by a barrel-vaulted roof (śālā), the now absent brick palace of Rājarāja – which was once connected to the main temple on the north – and the allied shrine of Candēśvara. In its transition from the Pallava tradition, where gopurams served as an entrance to the temple complex, the Brihadēśvara gopurams began reflecting the aesthetics of the shrine and eventually surpassed them in size. Rājarāja's heir, Rajendra I, after his successful campaign in the north, returned with the water of the Ganga to sanctify and commemorate his victory at a new capital in his homeland, called Gangaikoṇḍacōl̥apuram ('City of the Chola who conquered the Ganges'). There, he built a Śiva temple similar in form to Tanjore Brihadēśvara, but smaller in scale, which rises up to 50 meters. An extensively columned hall, bearing 150 pillars, is attached to the shrine at Gangaikoṇḍacōl̥apuram, setting a precedent that would be followed hereafter. Sculptures in stone and bronze, and murals adorned the exteriors and interiors of the Chola temples. However, they lacked the rhythm and flexibility of the early corpus, partly because of their large dimension. The sculptural remains in various media were not only aesthetic and religious in nature but also carried strong political connotations. For instance, the Brihadēśvara temple, also called Rājarājēśvaram-uṭaiyar after its patron king, features 38 depictions of Śiva as Tripurāntaka, the four-armed, bow-wielding cosmic warrior. Of these, 37 are stone sculptures, and one is a mural. These are located on the two-storey walls, base, and gopuram of the temple. According to Gerd Mevissen, these depictions assert his dominance, identify him with the deity, and serve as protective statues to ward off rivals such as the Rāṣṭr̥akūṭas, Kalyāṇi Cālukyas, Pāṇḍyas, Cēras, and Simhalas. Similarly, the maṇḍapa of Rājarāja II's Darasuram Airavatēśvara temple, constructed in the mid-12th century CE, features several Tripurāntaka images on its walls, pillars, and base. This temple, ingeniously conceived in the form of a chariot (rathamaṇḍapa), features the Tripurāntaka imagery and myth. According to Gerd Mevissen, this imagery is used as a trope to invoke the deity, 'who is worshipped for bringing death to enemies', and to regain and restore their waning power over rivals. The widespread use of Tripurāntaka imagery in Chōl̥a temples is thus regarded as an extension of the political allusion. At Rājasiṁha's Kanchipuram Kailāśanātha, the imagery was directed at their rival, the Badami Calukyas. Living world of Chola temples The Chola period also produced many ritualistic bronze images of deities in portable sizes. Inscriptions reveal that the Brihadēśvara temple in Tanjore owned 66 bronze images of gods, saints, and Rājarāja himself. Among several royal commissions, the theatrical representation of Śiva's marriage with Parvati is noteworthy (Kalyāṇasundara). Śiva and Parvati stand flanking each other in graceful postures, their hands clasped. Laksmi, flanking Parvati, is depicted pushing the bashful bride towards the groom. Visnu, serving as their officiant, is carved on a separate pedestal. Temple inscriptions also record generous donations of gold and gem jewellery towards the bronze images. Rājarāja's Brihadēśvara temple served as the town's nucleus, supported by a large workforce dedicated to its maintenance. Epigraphs mention architects, sculptors, painters, bronze casters, jewellers, priests, and financial agents among those involved in its maintenance. The temple functioned not only as a religious site but also as the town's civic centre, educational hub, and bank. It hosted dance and music events as part of its rituals, with inscriptions noting 67 temple musicians: five sang Vedic hymns, four performed Tamil hymns (Tevaram), and five served as vocalists. The temple also loaned money at an interest rate of 12.5 per cent, with Candesa (an individual) serving as its financial agent. One recorded transaction states: 'We have received from Candesa, the first servant of the divine lord, 500 coins out of the money deposited'. However, the monumental projects of the Cholas began to decline in the 12th century CE as their influence over rivals diminished. Their grand architectural vision is reflected in the large complexes of the Vijayanagara and the temple towns built in the region afterwards. What are the distinguishing architectural designs of Chola temples? In what ways did these temples serve as political statements as much as religious structures? What spatial and structural innovations distinguish the Brihadēśvara temple from earlier South Indian temple traditions? How did these changes redefine the sacred space? In what ways do the temples at Tanjore, Gangaikoṇḍacōl̥apuram, and Darasuram represent a continuum and culmination of Chola architectural vision? How did the use of the Tripurāntaka imagery carried political connotation in Chola temples? What do epigraphic records about temple musicians, artisans, and financial agents reveal about the socio-economic structure and cultural life of Chola temple towns? (Ajeya holds a PhD in History from the University of Delhi. Her research focuses on the art historical traditions of India and South Asia.) Share your thoughts and ideas on UPSC Special articles with Subscribe to our UPSC newsletter and stay updated with the news cues from the past week. 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Hans India
29-06-2025
- General
- Hans India
Survey on to help implement policy on transgenders
Bengaluru: A survey of transgenders across Karnataka is being done to help the government implement Karnataka State Policy on Transgenders, formulated in 2017, said Mahesh Babu, Managing Director of the Karnataka State Women's Development Corporation (KSWDC) on Saturday. According to Babu, the survey aims to gather information about the community's demographics, socio-economic conditions, and needs to help the government allocate resources for their welfare. He was speaking at an event, Rainbow Habba 2025, organised by Sangama, an LGBTQ rights group based in Bengalurui in connection with the Stonewall Riots Day on June 28. Stonewall Riots is a series of spontaneous riots and demonstrations that took place on June 28, 1969, at the Stonewall Inn, in the Greenwich Village neighbourhood of New York City. Stonewall riots marked a new beginning for the gay rights movement in the United States and around the world. 'Once we get the data of transgender community from across Karnataka, we will do what it takes to tackle the larger issues that the community faces, so that the development is not served in piecemeal,' said Babu, while delivering his keynote address, emphasising the importance of developing public policies for the holistic development of gender and sexual minorities. The survey was piloted in Vijayapura and Mysuru districts between March 10 and April 24, he added. According to him, it will cover all categories of transgenders, including Jogappas, Jogtas, Hijras, Kothis, Shivshakthis, and Aravanis, as well as intersex people, and those transitioning from female to male or male to female. Manohar Elavarthi, founder and executive director of Sangama, said, 'At a time when our communities in the United States, the birthplace of the Stonewall Riots, are losing hard-won rights, we must stay vigilant. We must continue to fight for our rights both in the streets and in the courts.' Around 200 people, including gender and sexual minority community members and their supporters, celebrated with music and dance, marking the 56th anniversary of the Stonewall Riots. The event was held at the Students' Christian Movement of India (SCMI) auditorium here. Sonu Niranjan, a transgender man who attended the event, said, 'Society and politicians are slowly beginning to acknowledge transgender women, but transgender men are still not receiving the freedom and opportunities they deserve. If this needs to change, the government must recognise and understand our community.' The day also saw felicitation of mothers who accepted their transgender children or adopted them.
The Hindu
28-06-2025
- Politics
- The Hindu
Gender and sexual minority community members, supporters participate in Rainbow festival
Members of the gender and sexual minority community and their supporters celebrated Rainbow Habba 2025 at the Students' Christian Movement of India (SCMI) auditorium here on Saturday. The celebration marked the 56th anniversary of the Stonewall Riots. On June 28, 1969, gender and sexual minorities fought against police harassment and violence at the Stonewall Inn bar in New York City. The event sparked a global movement for gender and sexual minority rights. Since 2023, Sangama has been hosting the Rainbow Festival every year to commemorate the Stonewall Riots. Around 200 people took part in the festival. On the occasion, mothers who accepted their transgender children or adopted transgender children were felicitated at the festival. Asha Imam Saab Naik Wadi, mother of Aina Sheikh (a gender minority woman) from Belagavi district, said, 'Aina has been living in Pune for many years, and is now doing farming in Belagavi and helping other members of the community.' Lakshmi, mother of Paru, who is another gender minority woman from Bengaluru, said, 'My youngest son Paru used to act like a girl from a young age and even now Paru is the one who runs our house.' Siddappa Hukkeri from Belagavi, who has got a government job under the 1% reservation, was also felicitated. Speaking at the event, Mahesh Babu, Managing Director of the Karnataka State Women's Development Corporation, emphasised the importance of developing public policies for the holistic development of gender and sexual minorities. Manohar Elavarthi, founder and executive director of Sangama, said, 'At a time when our communities in the U.S., the birthplace of the Stonewall Riots, are losing hard-won rights, we should stay vigilant.'
