Latest news with #C.E.
San Francisco Chronicle
11 hours ago
- Science
- San Francisco Chronicle
Solstices brought Mayan communities together, using monuments shaped by science and religion – and kingly ambitions, too
Eds: This story was supplied by The Conversation for AP customers. The Associated Press does not guarantee the content. Gerardo Aldana, University of California, Santa Barbara (THE CONVERSATION) K'ahk' Uti' Witz' K'awiil knew his history. For 11 generations, the Mayan ruler's dynasty had ruled Copan, a city-state near today's border between Honduras and Guatemala. From the fifth century C.E. into the seventh century, scribes painted his ancestors' genealogies into manuscripts and carved them in stone monuments throughout the city. Around 650, one particular piece of architectural history appears to have caught his eye. Centuries before, village masons built special structures for public ceremonies to view the Sun – ceremonies that were temporally anchored to the solstices, like the one that will occur June 20, 2025. Building these types of architectural complexes, which archaeologists call 'E-Groups,' had largely fallen out of fashion by K'ahk' Uti' Witz' K'awiil's time. But aiming to realize his ambitious plans for his city, he seems to have found inspiration in these astronomical public spaces, as I've written about in my research on ancient Mayan hieroglyphically recorded astronomy. K'ahk' Uti' Witz' K'awiil's innovations are a reminder that science changes through discovery or invention – but also occasionally for personal or political purposes, particularly in the ancient world. E-Groups were first constructed in the Mayan region as early as 1000 B.C.E. The site of Ceibal, on the banks of the Pasión River in central Guatemala, is one such example. There, residents built a long, plastered platform bordering the eastern edge of a large plaza. Three structures were arranged along a north-south axis atop this platform, with roofs tall enough to rise above the rainforest floral canopy. Within the center of the plaza, to the west of the platform, they built a radially symmetric pyramid. From there, observers could follow sunrise behind and between the structures on the platform over the course of the year. At one level, the earliest E-Group complexes served very practical purposes. In Preclassic villages where these complexes have been found, like Ceibal, populations of several hundred to a few thousand lived on 'milpa' or 'slash-and-burn' farming techniques practices still maintained in pueblos throughout Mesoamerica today. Farmers chop down brush vegetation, then burn it to fertilize the soil. This requires careful attention to the rainy season, which was tracked in ancient times by following the position of the rising Sun at the horizon. Most of the sites in the Classic Mayan heartland, however, are located in flat, forested landscapes with few notable features along the horizon. Only a green sea of the floral canopy meets the eye of an observer standing on a tall pyramid. By punctuating the horizon, the eastern structures of E-Group complexes could be used to mark the solar extremes. Sunrise behind the northernmost structure of the eastern platform would be observed on the summer solstice. Sunrise behind the southernmost structure marked the winter solstice. The equinoxes could be marked halfway between, when the Sun rose due east. Scholars are still debating key factors of these complexes, but their religious significance is well attested. Caches of finely worked jade and ritual pottery reflect a cosmology oriented around the four cardinal directions, which may have coordinated with the E-Group's division of the year. Fading knowledge K'ahk' Uti' Witz' K'awiil's citizenry, however, would have been less attuned to direct celestial observations than their ancestors. By the seventh century, Mayan political organization had changed significantly. Copan had grown to as many as 25,000 residents, and agricultural technologies also changed to keep up. Cities of the Classic period practiced multiple forms of intensive agriculture that relied on sophisticated water management strategies, buffering the need to meticulously follow the horizon movement of the Sun. E-Group complexes continued to be built into the Classic period, but they were no longer oriented to sunrise, and they served political or stylistic purposes rather than celestial views. Such a development, I think, resonates today. People pay attention to the changing of the seasons, and they know when the summer solstice occurs thanks to a calendar app on their phones. But they probably don't remember the science: how the tilt of the Earth and its path around the Sun make it appear as though the Sun itself travels north or south along the eastern horizon. United through ritual During the mid-seventh century, K'ahk' Uti' Witz' K'awiil had developed ambitious plans for his city – and astronomy provided one opportunity to help achieve them. He is known today for his extravagant burial chamber, exemplifying the success he eventually achieved. This tomb is located in the heart of a magnificent structure, fronted by the 'Hieroglyphic Stairway ': a record of his dynasty's history that is one of the largest single inscriptions in ancient history. Eying opportunities to transform Copan into a regional power, K'ahk' Uti' Witz' K'awiil looked for alliances beyond his local nobility, and he reached out to nearby villages. Over the past century, several scholars, including me, have investigated the astronomical component to his plan. It appears that K'ahk' Uti' Witz' K'awiil commissioned a set of stone monuments or 'stelae,' positioned within the city and in the foothills of the Copan Valley, which tracked the Sun along the horizon. Like E-Group complexes, these monuments engaged the public in solar observations. Taken together, the stelae created a countdown to an important calendric event, orchestrated by the Sun. Back in the 1920s, archaeologist Sylvanus Morley noted that from Stela 12, to the east of the city, one could witness the Sun set behind Stela 10, on a foothill to the west, twice each year. Half a century later, archaeoastronomer Anthony Aveni recognized that these two sunsets defined 20-day intervals relative to the equinoxes and the zenith passage of the Sun, when shadows of vertical objects disappear. Twenty days is an important interval in the Mayan calendar and corresponds to the length of a 'month' in the solar year. My own research showed that the dates on several stelae also commemorate some of these 20-day interval events. In addition, they all lead up to a once-every-20-year event called a 'katun end.' K'ahk' Uti' Witz' K'awiil celebrated this katun end, setting his plans for regional hegemony in motion at Quirigua, a growing, influential city some 30 miles away. A round altar there carries an image of him, commemorating his arrival. The hieroglyphic text tells us that K'ahk' Uti' Witz' K'awiil 'danced' at Quirigua, cementing an alliance between the two cities. In other words, K'ahk' Uti' Witz' K'awiil's 'solar stelae' did more than track the Sun. The monuments brought communities together to witness astronomical events for shared cultural and religious experiences, reaching across generations. Coming together to appreciate the natural cycles that make life on Earth possible is something that – I hope – will never fade with fashion.
Time of India
a day ago
- General
- Time of India
Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius enjoys social media revival
Representative AI image "Look within. Within is the fountain of good, and it will ever bubble up, if thou wilt ever dig." Wise statements like this can be found in the "Meditations" of Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius (121-180 C.E.). He had never intended these reflections for publication, having written them purely for himself, but they have become some of the most widely read writings after the Bible and the Quran. A bestseller, so to speak, which has been translated into numerous languages worldwide. Known today as a philosopher-king, Marcus Aurelius ruled at a time marked by crises and catastrophes. He ascended to the throne in 161 C.E., just a few years before the Marcomannic Wars (166-180 C.E.) — the Marcomanni were Germanic tribes — which would shake the Roman Empire to its foundations. In addition, he faced economic problems, social tensions and the spread of the Antonine Plague, a form of smallpox, throughout his territory. 'You have power over your mind, not outside events' Equanimity — that was one of the basic principles of Marcus Aurelius, who was a great fan of the Stoics, an ancient school of philosophy founded by the Greek Zeno of Citium in 300 B.C.E. by Taboola by Taboola Sponsored Links Sponsored Links Promoted Links Promoted Links You May Like Trade Bitcoin & Ethereum – No Wallet Needed! IC Markets Start Now Undo Marcus Aurelius wanted to be a good ruler, but what is good governance? That question, which remains relevant to this day, was of great concern to him, as reflected in his "Meditations." But his contemporaries would never have read his writings, according to archaeologist Marcus Reuter, director of the Rheinisches Landesmuseum in Trier. "The Romans also never saw him as a philosopher-king. His writings were never made public during his lifetime. He wrote for himself, in the quiet of his room in the evening." Aurelius only acquired the image of the philosopher-king after the publication of his "Meditations" in the 15th or 16th century. Reuter and historian Viola Skiba, director of the Stadtmuseum Simeonstift in Trier, have co-curated a joint exhibition, in each of their institutions, on Marcus Aurelius, set to run from June 15 to November 23, 2025. Skiba said the themes of the exhibition are more current than they had anticipated. The question of what good leadership looks like has taken on a new urgency, especially in these crisis-ridden and polarised times. At the same time, the question is as old as human history itself, and was clearly a focus in the ancient world. Donald Trump 'not a role model' What, according to Marcus Aurelius, distinguishes good governance? "Basically, it is guided by the cardinal virtues of antiquity," said Skiba. Those desirable virtues include wisdom, justice, prudence and moderation. A key concept is the "orientation toward the common good," acting in a way that truly benefits the community as a whole. "This is, so to speak, also what separates a good ruler from a bad one according to [the Greek philosopher] Aristotle." Reuter added that Marcus Aurelius would most likely have considered Donald Trump "not a good leader, and certainly not a role model." But of course, Marcus Aurelius was a product of his time, who grew up within the social structures of antiquity. "There was slavery, and not even Marcus Aurelius wanted to abolish it," said Reuter. The emperor also did not question "that there were people with and without Roman civil rights, or that women did not have the same rights as men." From today's perspective, it may also seem odd to consider as virtuous an emperor who waged brutal wars. "According to ancient standards, the emperor was expected to ensure the security of the empire and protect its inhabitants — even by very brutal means if necessary," said Reuter. "He was extensively involved in court cases. He endeavoured to pass just judgments, and always put the interests of the state first," added Reuter. The construction of the Porta Nigra in Trier — today the city's famous landmark — can also be traced back to Marcus Aurelius. It was part of the city wall that Aurelius had built to protect its citizens. 'Very little is needed to make a happy life' Aphorisms like the above can seem like mockery coming from a wealthy emperor, but they were meant sincerely. Indeed, Marcus Aurelius cultivated a rather modest lifestyle and even had imperial household items — his private assets — auctioned off when the state was in financial crisis. "As far as I know, no Roman emperor before or after him did that," said Reuter. Marcus Aurelius also apparently spent a lot of time pondering the meaning of life, which is presumably the reason so many young people nowadays are interested in him and his writings. In Reuter's estimation, "his 'Meditations' are a little treasure trove containing something to address nearly every situation in life." Reuter pointed out that Marcus Aurelius' writings don't lend themselves to being read from front to back, but are well-suited to dipping into to find inspiration. They are, after all, the private musings of someone who spent time thinking about what was truly important in life. So it's small wonder that quotes by the Roman emperor can be found all over social media. The exhibition in Trier builds on this contemporary interest in Marcus Aurelius and the topics that occupied him. It's designed to inspire visitors from all over the world to reflect on themselves, society and what a long-ago Roman emperor still has to say to us today. Or, as Skiba put it, "Every society is based on individuals, and if each and every individual asks themselves these philosophical and political questions, then it also works as a whole."
DW
4 days ago
- General
- DW
Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius enjoys social media revival – DW – 06/08/2025
How do you keep calm in times of crisis? What do people need to be happy? Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius is often quoted online for answers. This once-powerful man would have preferred to be a philosopher. "Look within. Within is the fountain of good, and it will ever bubble up, if thou wilt ever dig." Wise statements like this can be found in the "Meditations" of Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius (121-180 C.E.). He had never intended these reflections for publication, having written them purely for himself, but they have become some of the most widely read writings after the Bible and the Quran. A bestseller, so to speak, which has been translated into numerous languages worldwide. Known today as a philosopher-king, Marcus Aurelius ruled at a time marked by crises and catastrophes. He ascended to the throne in 161 C.E., just a few years before the Marcomannic Wars (166-180 C.E.) — the Marcomanni were Germanic tribes — which would shake the Roman Empire to its foundations. In addition, there were economic problems, social tensions and the spread of the Antonine Plague, a form of smallpox, throughout the Roman emperor's territory. Two museums in Trier are co-hosting a major exhibition on Marcus Aurelius Image: Landesmuseum Trier 'You have power over your mind, not outside events' Equanimity — that was one of the basic principles of Marcus Aurelius, who was a great fan of the Stoics, an ancient school of philosophy founded by the Greek Zeno of Citium in 300 B.C.E. Marcus Aurelius wanted to be a good ruler, but what is good governance? That question, which remains relevant to this day, was of great concern to him, as reflected in his "Meditations." But his contemporaries would never have read his writings, according to archaeologist Marcus Reuter, director of the Rheinisches Landesmuseum in Trier. "The Romans also never saw him as a philosopher-king. His writings were never made public during his lifetime. He wrote for himself, in the quiet of his room in the evening." Aurelius only acquired the image of the philosopher-king after the publication of his "Meditations" in the 15th or 16th century. Reuter and historian Viola Skiba, director of the Stadtmuseum Simeonstift in Trier, have co-curated a joint exhibition , in each of their institutions, on Marcus Aurelius, set to run from June 15 to November 23, 2025. Skiba says the themes of the exhibition are more current than they had anticipated. Particularly in these crisis-ridden and polarized times, the question of what good leadership looks like has taken on a new urgency. At the same time, the question is as old as human history itself, and was clearly a focus in the ancient world. Museum directors Marcus Reuter and Viola Skiba co-curated the joint exhibition Image: Rheinisches Landesmuseum Trier Donald Trump 'not a role model' What, according to Marcus Aurelius, distinguishes good governance? "Basically, it is guided by the cardinal virtues of antiquity," says Skiba. Those desirable virtues include wisdom, justice, prudence and moderation. A key concept is the "orientation towards the common good," acting in a way that truly benefits the community as a whole. "This is, so to speak, also what separates a good ruler from a bad one according to [the Greek philospher] Aristotle." Reuter adds that Marcus Aurelius would most likely have considered Donald Trump "not a good leader, and certainly not a role model." But of course, Marcus Aurelius was a product of his time, who grew up within the social structures of antiquity. "There was slavery, and not even Marcus Aurelius wanted to abolish it," according to Reuter. The emperor also did not question "that there were people with and without Roman civil rights, or that women did not have the same rights as men." From today's perspective, it may also seem odd to consider as virtuous an emperor who waged brutal wars. "According to ancient standards, the emperor was expected to ensure the security of the empire and protect its inhabitants — even by very brutal means if necessary," says Reuter. "He was extensively involved in court cases. He endeavored to pass just judgments, and always put the interests of the state first," adds Reuter. The construction of the Porta Nigra in Trier — today the city's famous landmark — can also be traced back to Marcus Aurelius. It was part of the city wall that Aurelius had built to protect its citizens. A fragment from Marcus Aurelius' 'Meditations' from the 15th century Image: Bistumsarchiv Trier (BATr) Abt. 95,1 Nr. 23 'Very little is needed to make a happy life' Aphorisms like the above can seem like mockery coming from a wealthy emperor, but they were meant sincerely. Indeed, Marcus Aurelius cultivated a rather modest lifestyle and even had imperial household items — his private assets — auctioned off when the state was in financial crisis. "As far as I know, no Roman emperor before or after him did that," says Reuter. He also apparently spent a lot of time pondering the meaning of life, which is presumably the reason so many young people nowadays are interested in him and his writings. In Reuter's estimation, "his 'Meditations' are a little treasure trove containing something to address nearly every situation in life." The archaeologist points out that Marcus Aurelius' writings don't lend themselves to being read from front to back, but are well-suited to dipping into to find inspiration. They are, after all, the private musings of someone who spent time thinking about what was truly important in life. So it's small wonder that quotes by the Roman emperor can be found all over social media. The exhibition in Trier builds on this contemporary interest in Marcus Aurelius and the topics that occupied him. It's designed to inspire visitors from all over the world to reflect on themselves, society, and what a long-ago Roman emperor still has to say to us today. Or, as Viola Skiba puts it, "Every society is based on individuals, and if each and every individual asks themselves these philosophical and political questions, then it also works as a whole." This article was originally published in German.
Newsweek
23-04-2025
- Science
- Newsweek
Archaeologists Reveal Gladiator Attacked by Lion in Roman 'Spectacle'
Based on facts, either observed and verified firsthand by the reporter, or reported and verified from knowledgeable sources. Newsweek AI is in beta. Translations may contain inaccuracies—please refer to the original content. It has been revealed that the skeletal remains of a man from Roman-era Britain show he was bitten by a large cat like a lion, meaning that he may well have been a combatant who died in a gladiator show. While accounts of gladiatorial fights in the Roman Empire are well documented—both human vs. human contests and human vs. animal combat—the discovery represents the first direct, physical evidence for the latter in Europe from this time. "The implications of our multidisciplinary study are huge," said lead author and anthropologist professor Tim Thompson of Ireland's Maynooth University in a statement. "For years, our understanding of Roman gladiatorial combat and animal spectacles has relied heavily on historical texts and artistic depictions." The new find, Thompson added, is "reshaping our perception of Roman entertainment culture in the region." Big cat bite marks on the man's right ilium (hip bone). Big cat bite marks on the man's right ilium (hip bone). From the research paper: Unique osteological evidence for human-animal gladiatorial combat in Roman Britain The man's remains, which date back to around 200 to 300 C.E., were unearthed from the Driffield Terrace cemetery in York (once the Roman city of Eboracum) 20 years ago, along with 81 other burials and evidence of 14 cremations. Based on the fact that the remains appeared to belong mainly to young men—and that many exhibited signs of trauma in the form of bone fractures or decapitation in an execution-style—it had long been speculated that the burials could be of gladiators. The individual in question, who has been given the id "6DT19," was previously noted to have a series of depressions on his pelvis, which had been speculated to be carnivore bites. In the new study, the researchers created a three-dimensional scan of the marks, allowing them to be compared with the bite marks known to be left by various animals. The best fit was found to be from the bite of a big cat. Given the bite marks were found on the pelvis, the team said that they could have come from a lion scavenging on the body around the time of death. "As tangible witnesses to spectacles in Britain's Roman amphitheatres, the bitemarks help us appreciate these spaces as settings for brutal demonstrations of power," said paper co-author and archaeologist John Pearce of King's College London, England, in a statement. Pearce added: "They make an important contribution to desanitizing our Roman past." "One of the wonderful things about archaeology is that we continue to make discoveries even years after a dig has concluded, as research methods and technology enable us to explore the past in more detail," said York Archaeology CEO David Jennings. "This latest research gives us a remarkable insight into the life—and death—of this particular individual, and adds to both previous and ongoing genome research into the origins of some of the men buried in this particular Roman cemetery. "We may never know what brought this man to the arena where we believe he may have been fighting for the entertainment of others, but it is remarkable that the first osteo-archaeological evidence for this kind of gladiatorial combat has been found so far from the Colosseum of Rome." Do you have a tip on a science story that Newsweek should be covering? Do you have a question about the Romans? Let us know via science@ Reference Thompson, T. J. U., Errickson, D., McDonnell, C., Holst, M., Caffell, A., Pearce, J., & Gowland, R. L. (2025). Unique osteological evidence for human-animal gladiatorial combat in Roman Britain. PLOS ONE, 20(4).
Yahoo
06-03-2025
- Yahoo
China's other great wall is impressive, too—and steeped in history
It's the weekend of the mid-autumn festival in Xi'an, and all roads seem to lead to the south gate of the city's wall. In China's central province of Shaanxi, Xi'an is primarily known for the museum that houses the army of terra-cotta warriors commissioned by China's first ruler to protect him in his afterlife. But the wall, on this Saturday evening, is where all the action on this Saturday evening, the wall is where all the action is. Families are taking an evening stroll, complete with laughing, screaming children. There are vendors and buskers, tourists on bicycles, food stalls, and souvenir shops. Couples wearing regal red robes are wilting under the strobe lights for bridal photoshoots. Meanwhile, other photographers are capturing dozens of young women dressed up in flowy hanfu – traditional costumes from the Tang era that are suddenly in vogue among China's youth. Dozens of ornate watchtowers, turrets, parapets, and pavilions are scattered along the length of the wall. As dusk falls and the red lanterns and lights come on, the whole scene assumes a fairytale vibe. When people mention 'wall' in the context of China, it is generally assumed to refer to the mammoth structure known as the Great Wall of China. But there are dozens, if not hundreds, of city walls throughout the country, in Beijing, Nanjing, Fenghuang, Pingyao, and Xi'an, among others. 'The word for city in China, cheng / 城 means walled city,' says Kenneth Swope, professor of history at the University of Southern Mississippi and expert on imperial Chinese military history. Yinong Cheng, professor at the School of History and Archival Studies at Yunnan University, adds that city walls tended to perform three main functions: defense, flood protection, and show of imperial might. Several of these city walls, dating back to the Ming and Qing Dynasties, are now on UNESCO's tentative list of heritage sites. The Xi'an wall—originally built during the Tang era (618 – 907 C.E.) and later expanded by the Ming dynasty from 1370 onwards—is considered the most complete and well-preserved. The wall runs for 8.5 miles (13.7 km) and measures 40 feet (12 meters) in height and 49 feet (15 meters) in width. Four main gates face each cardinal direction, and there are 14 minor gates in between, and a moat surrounds it. Swope also says that the more powerful the rulers, the higher and more impressive the walls. This certainly makes sense for Xi'an (formerly Chang'an), an important city through early imperial times, serving as capital for the Han, Sui, and Tang dynasties. Xi'an is also the starting point of the network of trading routes known as the Silk Road. It was a planned city, built as a perfect grid with the wall enclosing it in a complete, rectangular loop. Even today, for some, it is possible to walk the entire length of the wall without a break. 'It was always a significant post not only for commercial transactions but also diplomatic transactions. There is no doubt that Chang'an was already walled in early imperial times, say, by the third-second century B.C.E.,' says Hilde De Weerdt, a professor of Chinese and Modern Global History at KU Leuven in Belgium. 'So, when we say this is a 14th century wall, it is the earliest moment that we know of any (significant) renovation.' The reason for the wall's grandeur stems from Chang'an's strategic importance combined with the Ming dynasty's need to project their stately authority through such structures. 'I can't actually think of a foreign invasion that would have warranted this (wall), because it's not even near any major border,' says Dr Lars Laamann, Assistant Professor of History at SOAS University of London. According to Swope, the Ming era was the pinnacle of 'imperial architecture,' which gave us landmarks like the Forbidden City and the Temple of Heaven in Beijing. Coming right after the nomadic Mongols, the Ming rulers saw these walls as a way to rebuild Chinese pride. The original purpose of these walls may have been to contain the cities or the populace within the perimeter. But over time, the towns grew beyond these boundaries, turning these walls into midtown anachronisms. From the top of the Xi'an wall, the sights and sounds of modern life are inescapable—skyscrapers and neon lights, honking cars and scurrying pedestrians. After the terra-cotta army, the wall is now one of Xi'an's most popular tourist attractions. It has welcomed hundreds of famous visitors, including Bill Clinton, Michelle Obama, and Mark Zuckerberg, who went for a rain-soaked run on the wall's walkway. The Xi'an wall faced the threat of demolition during the 1950s as part of the country's Great Leap Forward narrative. Cheng says that even though widespread demolition started even earlier, towards the end of the Qing era (circa 1912), the wall stayed mostly intact, thanks to Xi'an's status as an ancient historic capital. The real challenge came later. 'The story of conservation takes us from the Ming era to Mao Zedong,' says Dr Laamann, referring to the renowned architectural historian couple Lin Huiyin and Liang Sicheng. 'It was a power struggle within the Communist Party, when one faction wanted to get rid of old medieval structures in the country, because they thought in the modern world, there was no place for such remnants of the past.' Lin and Liang fought to preserve the city walls everywhere—they lost in Beijing but won in Xi'an. De Weerdt points out that the struggle between conservation and modernization is universal, citing the example of medieval walls in France and Italy torn down in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. 'A lot of what we see in the Xi'an wall today is rebuilt with modern materials and modern ways of thinking,' she explains. However, this version of the wall integrates the cultural angle with the social: locals and tourists alike get to appreciate the city's heritage while also using it as an urban public space. Xi'an is connected to all major cities in China, so travelers can get there by plane and high-speed train. You can also fly directly into Xi'an's Xianyang International Airport from a few cities in Asia, such as Hong Kong, Seoul, Kuala Lumpur, and Beijing. When you arrive in Xi'an, you can navigate the city easily on foot or by metro. Charukesi Ramadurai writes on travel, culture, environment, and sustainability for various publications around the world. Follow her travels on Instagram.
