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Time of India
3 days ago
- Business
- Time of India
India's middle class: From colonial clerks to digital citizens
If you really want to understand India, follow the middle class. From colonial courtrooms and chalk-dusted classrooms to metro stations, DigiLockers, and QR-code payments, this group has mirrored every shift in politics, the economy and culture. It has queued for ration cards, argued about GST, worked in Soviet-style factories, embraced market liberalisation, protested in the streets and founded start-ups. In a research paper, sociologists Surinder S. Jodhka and Aseem Prakash describe its evolution as a series of 'moments', distinct phases, each shaped by the historical, political, and economic currents of the time. This isn't a story that begins in 1947. The roots go back to the British Raj, and the middle class has reinvented itself at least three times since. 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From these campuses came lawyers, doctors, teachers, journalists. Most were upper-caste, from families that were comfortable but not wealthy enough to avoid paid work. Many had been to Britain, soaking up liberal and democratic ideals. They joined social reform movements and the freedom struggle, but their reformism had limits. Even as they pushed for change, they often reinforced caste, religious and community boundaries. Live Events Independence to the 1970s Post-Independence, the state was the great employer, and the middle class was at its core. Jawaharlal Nehru's model put the government in charge of economic planning, industry, and services. Between 1956 and 1970, public sector jobs grew by 5.1 million. The organised private sector added 1.7 million jobs from 1960 to 1970, but slowed dramatically in the next decade, adding only 0.5 million. These were salaried professionals, 'short on money but long on institutional perks,' who had unusual influence because the state still enjoyed real autonomy from market pressures. The bureaucracy thrived, sometimes 'hijacking' policy to serve its own interests. But the base was diversifying. Industrial growth, rural development programmes and affirmative action widened access. Reservations for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in education, public jobs, and politics opened new doors, though upper-caste dominance persisted. 1980s–2000s: the consumer turn By the 1980s, the Nehruvian state was running out of steam. Globally, market economies were thriving. In India, the decade saw rising aspirations, the growth of private enterprise, and the first cracks in the licence–permit raj. Then came 1991. Liberalisation expanded the middle class and boosted its spending power, but also exposed it to market volatility, inflation shocks and job insecurity. The media liked to portray this 'new' middle class as an income bracket with shopping malls and credit cards. But, as Jodhka and Prakash note, its real importance lies in how it sits between the state, market and civil society, influencing all three while representing a mix of communities. Jobs and sector spread Organised sector jobs – public and private – have always been the middle class's anchor, but they cover just 7% of total employment. Public sector employment rose from 11.2 million in 1971 to 18 million in 2007, growing strongly in the 1970s and 1980s. After 1996–97, contraction set in, cutting 1.56 million jobs by 2006–07. The private organised sector grew from 6.74 million jobs in 1970–71 to 9.24 million in 2006–07, a sluggish 1% annual growth. From 1997–98 to 2005–06, it even shrank by 0.3 million. Today, middle-income groups stretch across agriculture, industry, services, intellectual work and top decision-making roles. In rural areas, they include large farmers, small entrepreneurs and salaried officials. 2014–2025: policy focus and the politics of relief The last eleven years have seen government policy explicitly centre the middle class in India's growth plan. The aim: ease financial pressure, expand housing, transport, healthcare and education, and cut bureaucratic friction, as per the government. Taxation is the most visible shift. Exemption thresholds have been raised repeatedly, with a simplified regime in 2020. In the Union Budget 2025–26, the zero-tax threshold jumped to ₹12 lakh, with a ₹75,000 standard deduction, meaning someone earning ₹12.75 lakh pays nothing. The cost: nearly ₹1 lakh crore in foregone revenue. Compliance is easier too: pre-filled returns, faceless e-assessment, and ITR filings rising from 3.91 crore in 2013–14 to 9.19 crore in 2024–25. Inflation, the 'silent tax', averaged 8.2% between 2004–05 and 2013–14, but eased to 5% from 2015–16 to 2024–25 through tighter RBI coordination and better supply management. It has now fallen to 2.10%. The Unified Pension Scheme, launched in 2024, guarantees half of the last year's average basic pay after 25 years of service, with family pensions at 60%. It covers 23 lakh central employees and over 90 lakh in state systems. Urban life has transformed. The Smart Cities Mission is 93% complete. PMAY (Urban) has sanctioned 1.16 crore houses, 92.72 lakh of which are finished. Metro networks have grown from 248 km in 2014 to 1,013 km in 2025. Operational airports have more than doubled under UDAN. Healthcare and education have expanded. Ayushman Bharat–PMJAY covers over 41 crore people. Jan Aushadhi Kendras have grown to 16,469 outlets. Skill-building schemes have trained more than 1.63 crore people in everything from AI to mechatronics. Digital governance is now routine. Aadhaar covers 141.88 crore people. DigiLocker serves 52.51 crore users. UMANG delivers 2,297 services without a single queue. The contradictions remain From colonial reformers to online taxpayers, the Indian middle class has been both the engine and the product of its era. It has demanded state protection and market freedom, modernisation and community identity, reform and status quo. As Jodhka and Prakash remind us, 'The middle class also needs to be understood in terms of its role in relation to the state, market and the civil society.' The challenge ahead isn't just adding to its numbers, but securing its economic base while keeping the ladder open for those still climbing. Because in India, the middle class is more than an income bracket; it's the country's mirror.
Hindustan Times
14-05-2025
- General
- Hindustan Times
Girls outshine boys again as CBSE declares Class 10 and 12 results
Girls continued to outperform boys in Delhi and the surrounding regions as the Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) on Tuesday announced results for Class 10 and 12 board examinations for the 2024-25 academic year. In Delhi, the Class 12 pass percentage for girls stood at 96.71%, compared to 93.76% for boys. Overall, 95.23% of students who appeared for the Class 12 exams cleared them. In Class 10, 95.71% of girls passed, while the pass rate for boys was 93.98%. The total pass percentage for Class 10 in Delhi was 94.8%.In 2024, the pass percentage of girls in class 10 stood at 94.91% and 93.76% for boys. Meanwhile, the pass percentage of girls in class 12 was 96.6% and 93.29% for boys in 2024. The national average for pass percentage in Class 12 was 88.39%, while it was 93.66% for Class 10. The trend was mirrored in the Noida region — covering Gautam Budh Nagar and Ghaziabad — where 87.06% of girls passed the Class 12 exams, compared to just 77.2% of boys. Overall, the pass percentage stood at 81.29%. In Class 10, girls again outshone boys, with 92.4% passing against 87.38% of boys. The total pass rate was 89.41%. In 2024, students in the Capital recorded an overall pass percentage of 94.97% in class 12 and 94.35% in class 10. In keeping with its recent policy to curb unhealthy competition, CBSE did not declare a merit list. However, merit certificates will be issued to the top 0.1% of candidates in each subject. These certificates will be available in students' DigiLockers. A total of 286,176 students from Delhi registered for the Class 12 exams this year. Of these, 284,852 appeared and 271,252 passed. The exams were held from February 15 to April 4 across 864 centres in Delhi, affiliated with 1,810 schools. CBSE said this year's Class 12 exams included 50% competency-based questions, aligning with reforms under the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020. To prepare students and teachers, the board released model practice papers, hosted a pre-exam webinar on February 14, and organised training sessions for teachers. In Class 10, 298,844 students had registered from Delhi, and 281,815 passed, bringing the city's overall pass percentage to 94.8%. These exams were conducted from February 15 to March 18 at 867 centres affiliated with 2,118 schools. Delhi chief minister Rekha Gupta took to social media to congratulate students. 'This success is a testament to your hard work, discipline, and determination,' she wrote on X (formerly Twitter). She encouraged those disappointed with their results not to lose heart: 'This is just a stop, not the limit of your capabilities... Your sincere efforts and faith in yourself are your biggest strength.' Delhi education minister Ashish Sood also congratulated the successful candidates on X. School principals welcomed CBSE's decision to refrain from announcing toppers, a move aimed at promoting a healthier academic environment. Jyoti Arora, principal of Mount Abu School in Rohini, said: 'We are happy to see so many smiling faces because real success is about learning and growing. CBSE's swift, tech-enabled process and the progressive step of not declaring toppers has transformed results into true celebrations of learning.' In the Noida region, 127,683 students appeared for Class 12 exams across 1,658 affiliated schools. Of them, 103,789 cleared the exams — an overall pass percentage of 81.29%. In Class 10, 1,70,111students appeared, and 1,50,795passed, resulting in an 89.41% pass percentage. Gautam Budh Nagar, which had the highest number of schools (235) in the Noida region, recorded a Class 12 pass percentage of 86.79%, with 17,993 of 20,731 students passing. Girls again led with a pass rate of 91.74%, while 83.06% of boys cleared the exam. Ghaziabad, home to 232 CBSE-affiliated schools, saw a Class 12 pass percentage of 83.98%. Of the 20,444 students who appeared, 17,179 passed. Here too, girls performed better — 89.84% passed compared to 80.54% of boys. Educators attributed the regional dip in scores to challenging papers in key subjects such as Mathematics and Physics. 'The pattern made it harder for top students to score 100s, but average performers did slightly better,' said Renu Singh, director-principal of Amity International School, Noida. 'The overall marginal rise reflects that.' Divya Bhatia, principal, Amity International School Saket, congratulated the students. 'The results have been as good as every year with our Class 10 topper Ashita Bansal scoring 99.6% (or 498 out of 500) and Class 12 topper Adhya Arora scoring 99% marks… A large number of students in both 10 and 12 have scored a perfect 100 in various subjects,' she said. In Gurugram, CBSE did not release district-wise data. However, several leading schools reported 100% pass rates, including Amity International School in Sectors 43 and 46, Blue Bells Global School, Shiv Nadar Schools, and Ajanta Public School. With the results now out, attention shifts to college admissions and competitive exam preparations. Schools are also gearing up to support students through counselling sessions and academic guidance in the weeks ahead. Educators say students must adapt to evolving question formats and skill-based assessments. 'The focus now is not just on rote learning but on application-based thinking. The board's direction is clear, and it's up to us to prepare the students accordingly,' said Jyoti Arora. Students of Atal Adarsh and Navyug Schools under the New Delhi Municipal Council (NDMC) have set a new record in the board exams, with 29 schools achieving 100% results, NDMC vice chairman Kuljeet Singh Chahal said in a statement, adding that the overall pass rate is 98.46%. 'It is a proud moment for us this year, 7 schools in Class 12 and 22 schools in class 10 have achieved a 100% pass percentage,' he said. Class 10 saw 946 of 952 students pass in 22 Atal Adarsh Schools, and 490 of 493 in Navyug Schools. In Class 12, 1,051 of Atal Adarsh students and 679 of Navyug students cleared the exams. (with inputs from Ishita Singh)
