India's middle class: From colonial clerks to digital citizens

Time of India

a day ago

If you really want to understand India, follow the middle class. From colonial courtrooms and chalk-dusted classrooms to metro stations, DigiLockers, and QR-code payments, this group has mirrored every shift in politics, the economy and culture. It has queued for ration cards, argued about GST, worked in Soviet-style factories, embraced market liberalisation, protested in the streets and founded start-ups. In a research paper, sociologists Surinder S. Jodhka and Aseem Prakash describe its evolution as a series of 'moments', distinct phases, each shaped by the historical, political, and economic currents of the time.
This isn't a story that begins in 1947. The roots go back to the British Raj, and the middle class has reinvented itself at least three times since.
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Colonial roots
The British didn't just rule, they brought a modern industrial economy, secular education and a bureaucratic machine that needed a new kind of worker. Calcutta, Bombay and Madras saw schools and colleges spring up.
The numbers tell the story. By 1911, India had 186 colleges with 36,284 students. A decade later: 231 colleges, 59,595 students. By 1939: 385 colleges and 144,904 students, as per BB Mishra's book 'The
Indian Middle Class
'. From these campuses came lawyers, doctors, teachers, journalists. Most were upper-caste, from families that were comfortable but not wealthy enough to avoid paid work.
Many had been to Britain, soaking up liberal and democratic ideals. They joined social reform movements and the freedom struggle, but their reformism had limits. Even as they pushed for change, they often reinforced caste, religious and community boundaries.
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Independence to the 1970s
Post-Independence, the state was the great employer, and the middle class was at its core. Jawaharlal Nehru's model put the government in charge of economic planning, industry, and services. Between 1956 and 1970, public sector jobs grew by 5.1 million. The organised private sector added 1.7 million jobs from 1960 to 1970, but slowed dramatically in the next decade, adding only 0.5 million.
These were salaried professionals, 'short on money but long on institutional perks,' who had unusual influence because the state still enjoyed real autonomy from market pressures. The bureaucracy thrived, sometimes 'hijacking' policy to serve its own interests.
But the base was diversifying. Industrial growth, rural development programmes and affirmative action widened access. Reservations for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in education, public jobs, and politics opened new doors, though upper-caste dominance persisted.
1980s–2000s: the consumer turn
By the 1980s, the Nehruvian state was running out of steam. Globally, market economies were thriving. In India, the decade saw rising aspirations, the growth of private enterprise, and the first cracks in the licence–permit raj. Then came 1991. Liberalisation expanded the middle class and boosted its spending power, but also exposed it to market volatility, inflation shocks and job insecurity.
The media liked to portray this 'new' middle class as an income bracket with shopping malls and credit cards. But, as Jodhka and Prakash note, its real importance lies in how it sits between the state, market and civil society, influencing all three while representing a mix of communities.
Jobs and sector spread
Organised sector jobs – public and private – have always been the middle class's anchor, but they cover just 7% of total employment. Public sector employment rose from 11.2 million in 1971 to 18 million in 2007, growing strongly in the 1970s and 1980s. After 1996–97, contraction set in, cutting 1.56 million jobs by 2006–07. The private organised sector grew from 6.74 million jobs in 1970–71 to 9.24 million in 2006–07, a sluggish 1% annual growth. From 1997–98 to 2005–06, it even shrank by 0.3 million.
Today, middle-income groups stretch across agriculture, industry, services, intellectual work and top decision-making roles. In rural areas, they include large farmers, small entrepreneurs and salaried officials.
2014–2025: policy focus and the politics of relief
The last eleven years have seen government policy explicitly centre the middle class in India's growth plan. The aim: ease financial pressure, expand housing, transport, healthcare and education, and cut bureaucratic friction, as per the government. Taxation is the most visible shift. Exemption thresholds have been raised repeatedly, with a simplified regime in 2020. In the Union Budget 2025–26, the zero-tax threshold jumped to ₹12 lakh, with a ₹75,000 standard deduction, meaning someone earning ₹12.75 lakh pays nothing.
The cost: nearly ₹1 lakh crore in foregone revenue. Compliance is easier too: pre-filled returns, faceless e-assessment, and ITR filings rising from 3.91 crore in 2013–14 to 9.19 crore in 2024–25.
Inflation, the 'silent tax', averaged 8.2% between 2004–05 and 2013–14, but eased to 5% from 2015–16 to 2024–25 through tighter RBI coordination and better supply management. It has now fallen to 2.10%.
The Unified Pension Scheme, launched in 2024, guarantees half of the last year's average basic pay after 25 years of service, with family pensions at 60%. It covers 23 lakh central employees and over 90 lakh in state systems.
Urban life has transformed. The Smart Cities Mission is 93% complete. PMAY (Urban) has sanctioned 1.16 crore houses, 92.72 lakh of which are finished. Metro networks have grown from 248 km in 2014 to 1,013 km in 2025. Operational airports have more than doubled under UDAN.
Healthcare and education have expanded. Ayushman Bharat–PMJAY covers over 41 crore people. Jan Aushadhi Kendras have grown to 16,469 outlets. Skill-building schemes have trained more than 1.63 crore people in everything from AI to mechatronics. Digital governance is now routine. Aadhaar covers 141.88 crore people. DigiLocker serves 52.51 crore users. UMANG delivers 2,297 services without a single queue.
The contradictions remain
From colonial reformers to online taxpayers, the Indian middle class has been both the engine and the product of its era. It has demanded state protection and market freedom, modernisation and community identity, reform and status quo. As Jodhka and Prakash remind us, 'The middle class also needs to be understood in terms of its role in relation to the state, market and the civil society.'
The challenge ahead isn't just adding to its numbers, but securing its economic base while keeping the ladder open for those still climbing. Because in India, the middle class is more than an income bracket; it's the country's mirror.