Latest news with #Linnaeus
Scroll.in
04-08-2025
- Science
- Scroll.in
Pulitzer Prize for biography: ‘Every Living Thing' charts the tension between two types of ‘genius'
The modern science biography must hold back no punches in its mission to represent the subject's life, equally celebrating their great works while including their personal shortcomings. Jürgen Neffe's Einstein: A Biography (2005) and Dava Sobel's The Elements of Marie Curie (2024) are wonderful examples of this style. Such books succeed in clearly explaining the complex science of their subject's work for non-scientific readers, enabling a deep appreciation of their achievements and bringing them to life as rounded, flawed humans. Jason Roberts' Every Living Thing: The Great and Deadly Race to Know all Life is another of these rare works. This engrossing, precisely researched book focuses on two central characters born in the same year: Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778), a Swede, and Frenchman Georges-Louis LeClerc, the Comte de Buffon (1707-1788), better known as just Buffon. Roberts' book won the 2025 Pulitzer Prize for biography. His writing pulls the reader effortlessly through the story, revealing delightful, unexpected twists and turns in the two men's complex and disparate lives. Each worked diligently to reach a level of global notoriety for their many published books. Both are revered in the natural history world today. Linnaeus, a biologist and physician, is known for his system of hierarchical classification: how all living things comprise a genus and species (we humans are Homo sapiens), which fit into families, orders, classes and so on. (A good many intermediate ranks were added later). While his work has been hugely influential, Linnaeus is portrayed by Roberts at times as being lazy, vain and unethical. Linnaeus was primarily driven to be the first to name new species. Buffon was working on a grand thesis of how all life's organisms function and are related to one another. A wealthy count who inherited a vast fortune at the age of ten, Buffon trained as a lawyer but became fascinated by the trees that grew in his large garden. Buffon is best known today for his extensive books on natural history and works on mathematics and cosmology. He calculated the Earth was much older than the Bible predicted and that life sprung from unorganised matter. He explored the relationships between organisms rather than how they were classified. His core work formed the basis for modern evolutionary theory. Why was all this important? At the time, the task of classifying plants was vital to the growing economies of nations. Travellers to the far reaches of the globe brought back examples of economically valuable new species, like plant foods, medicinal plants or beautiful ornamental specimens. The author's central thesis is Linnaeus was not as brilliant as history paints him and Buffon was a far greater genius for his day. Where does genius come from, Roberts asks? Is it inherent by birth, grown from an inspiring education, or is it something within that is nurtured by passion? Both these brilliant men who made a lasting mark on science came from not very inspiring families. Nor did they excel at school or university. This story shows success in academic work is not just about intellect, but intimately tied to the ethics and morality of doing research. Was Linneaus autistic? At the age of four, young Carl Linnaeus was fascinated by plants and had a gift for remembering their names. Seeking to become a botanist, he was first thwarted by his mediocrity at school where he failed miserably, preventing him from entering into a medical degree. He later went to the Netherlands to buy a degree from a dubious university after completing just two days study. He returned home and was eventually appointed professor of botany at Uppsala University. Linneaus today would possibly be thought of as autistic. He had a rare gift for rote learning names and lists of plants, while preferring his own company yet lacked outward empathy for his disciples on their perilous trips (autistic people often experience empathy in a different way). Linnaeus's classification system was refined over ten editions of his work Systema Naturae (1735-1778), in which he named over 4,236 animals and 7,700 species of plants. Still, his classification of plants by their sexual organs was cumbersome to use in the field, so didn't take off amongst his peers. Today this system falls apart when analysed using DNA comparisons between species. Linnaeus only ever did one field trip to collect specimens, to Lapland in northern Sweden. A famous painting shows him sporting Laplander clothing with a conical hat. When he bought it he was unaware that this hat was locally only worn by women. He boasted that he scaled Mount Caitumbyn (a name no longer listed on maps of the Lapland area), exaggerating its height and the dangers of the trip. However, he couldn't have done this as it would have involved a 1,400 km detour from his itinerary. He was openly corrupt at times, taking fees to write his own students' essays. His vanity was evident through his (anonymous) glowing reviews of his own works. Despite these faults, the scientific work Linnaeus achieved has formed the fundamental framework for all modern taxonomy – the science of the classification of life. He did get something right, even though his many parts of his published works were deeply flawed. Buffon's brilliance Georges-Louis LeClerc, later the Comte de Buffon, was born into a wealthy middle-class family. He was an average student who eventually obtained a law degree, despite his wild times at university, where he engaged in deadly duels. In his twenties, he built a three-storey mansion in the town of Montebard in Dijon and developed an immense garden. His interest in botany grew as he began experiments on trees. Soon he adopted a rigorous daily routine, waking up at 5am every day, dressing, then walking at first light to work. He worked all day with brief pauses for meals and a short nap, wrapping up at 7pm. Skipping dinner, he fasted every night. He kept to this same schedule for 50 years. Buffon idolised Isaac Newton and learned his calculus. He solved an ancient mystery about a weapon invented by Archimedes, which used giant mirrors to intensify the sun's rays and set fire to the Roman fleet in 212 BCE. Buffon built a replica to show the French military how this tactic had worked. He also solved complex mathematical equations and wrote papers on probability and statistics. His real passion though, was natural history. Buffon became motivated to explore the structure of animals and plants to determine the relationships between species. His biological work starts in earnest at volume four of his 35-volume set Histoire Naturelle, Générale et Particulière by examining three farm animals in mundane detail to define what it means to be a horse, donkey or bull. Buffon expressed clear ideas about evolution 100 years before Charles Darwin. All of the components of Darwin's theory – the how, where and why of natural selection and how species change – are there in Buffon's works. This was recognised by Darwin in his revised fourth edition of Origin of the Species (1866) when he admitted in an addendum that Buffon 'was the first author who, in modern times, has treated [the origin of species] in a scientific spirit'. Buffon's method of exploring the deep science of a topic was artfully delivered by his skilful prose. While other scholars (like Linnaeus) published in Latin, Buffon wrote in the popular French so all could read his work. He was France's best-selling non-fiction author for his day, and honoured by admittance into the Académie Française, the nation's highest literary honour. Rivalry The book outlines the rivalry between the two men, spurred on by their differing intellectual approaches to understanding natural history. Buffon's chief critique of Linnaeus's system of classification was that it was entirely arbitrary, set up by a whim, not from research. Linnaeus' response was to imply that Buffon's work was an experiment that lacked a practical path, implying it had no economic application to biology. Ironically, when Linnaeus published his tenth edition of his book in 1758, he vindicated Buffon's criticism by changing his system quite radically for no clear reason. As the two men settled into their main projects we see genius emerges from the slow, often painful, creation of new knowledge applied to problem-solving. Buffon's written works not only deal with nature, but also 'excoriate slavery', support women's sexual rights (arguing rightly that men used the concept of 'virginity' to control women) and proclaim all humans are but one species of equal capability. Linnaeus, on the other hand, was obsessed by one task – classifying all life. In the 18th century, it was believed there were around 4,000 species on Earth, as derived from a guess of how many animals and plants might fit on Noah's Ark. Linnaeus eventually conceded there must be at least 40,000 species. Today, we have over one million species documented, with up to a trillion calculated to possibly exist. While Linnaeus made lasting contributions to biology through these classifications, he stirred the hornet's nest by seeing humans as four distinct species, each based on superficial differences and inferred personality traits. His approach reeked of white supremacy. Roberts rightly points out it formed the basis for all systemic racism from then on. Lasting legacies Roberts is a 'more or less' self-taught writer. He honed his skills writing massive technical manuals for computer programming, some more than 600 pages long. This book follows his earlier A Sense of the World: How a Blind Man became History's Greatest Traveler, about the travels of blind Englishman James Holman (2006). There are a few small technical errors in this otherwise masterful work. A delightful chapter about the platypus tells us it generates an electric field, whereas it actually has sensitive electrosensory cells to detect the electric fields of its prey. A section about Darwin's work mentions British biologist Alfred Russel Wallace had ideas along 'similar lines', but it would have helped to mention Darwin and Wallace first published their preliminary ideas on evolution in a joint paper in June, 1858, a year before Darwin's On the Origin of Species was published. Still, overall, the research presented in this book is very tight. It shows Buffon's cross-disciplinary use of science, maths, physics and chemistry in his analyses of living things positioned him way ahead of his time. He savoured the study of natural history, whereas Linneaus gobbled it up in greedy mouthfuls. Both left lasting legacies. Aside from their voluminous written works, still widely cited today, their many disciples carried on and further developed their works after their deaths. These include many famous names (French biologist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, and zoologist Georges Cuvier, British biologist Thomas Huxley) who are discussed in the last chapters. The remaining parts of Linnaeus's biological collections are housed in London in the rooms of The Linnean Society, a lasting tribute to the founder of modern taxonomy. He is buried at Uppsala cathedral. Buffon is remembered not just through his books, but also by a magnificent marble statue commissioned by King Louis XVI, now in the grand gallery of evolution in Paris's natural history museum. It is inscribed with these words: 'All nature bows to his genius'. Buffon's preserved heart sits in the pedestal below this statue. John Long is Strategic Professor in Palaeontology, Flinders University.
Business Upturn
26-06-2025
- Business
- Business Upturn
Mars' Pending Acquisition of Kellanova Clears FTC Antitrust Review
CHICAGO, McLean, Va., United States: Mars, Incorporated, a family-owned, global leader in pet care, snacking and food, and Kellanova (NYSE: K), a leader in global snacking, international cereal and noodles and North America frozen foods, today announced that the U.S. Federal Trade Commission (FTC) has concluded its antitrust review of Mars' pending acquisition of Kellanova. Poul Weihrauch,CEO & Office of the President, Mars, Incorporated, said: 'We are very pleased that the FTC has completed its review of the transaction without the imposition of any condition or requiring any remedy. The transaction has now received all but one of the 28 required regulatory clearances, with only the review by the European Commission outstanding. This brings us one step closer to uniting two iconic businesses with complementary footprints and portfolios, allowing us to deliver more choice and innovation to consumers.' Steve Cahillane, Chairman, President & CEO, Kellanova, said: 'This represents a significant milestone on our path to combine Mars Snacking and Kellanova. We continue to believe this is an exciting opportunity to create a broader, global snacking business that is better positioned to meet evolving consumer needs and preferences.' Based on the current status of the ongoing antitrust review by the European Commission, Mars and Kellanova expect the transaction to close towards the end of 2025, subject to customary closing conditions. The exact timing cannot be predicted with any certainty at this point. About Mars, Incorporated Mars, Incorporated is driven by the belief that the world we want tomorrow starts with how we do business today. As a global, family-owned business, Mars is transforming, innovating, and evolving to make a positive impact on the world. Across our diverse and expanding portfolio of quality snacking, food, and pet care products and services, we employ 150,000+ dedicated Associates. With more than $50 billion in annual sales, we produce some of the world's best-loved brands including Ben's Original™, CESAR®, Cocoavia®, DOVE®, EXTRA®, KIND®, M&M's®, SNICKERS®, PEDIGREE®, ROYAL CANIN®, and WHISKAS®. We are creating A Better World for Pets through our global network of pet hospitals and diagnostic services – including AniCura, BANFIELD™, BLUEPEARL™, Linnaeus and VCA™ – using cutting edge technology to develop breakthrough programs in genetic health screening and DNA testing. For more information about Mars, please visit Join us on Facebook, Instagram, LinkedIn and YouTube. About Kellanova Kellanova (NYSE: K) is a leader in global snacking, international cereal and noodles, and North America frozen foods with a legacy stretching back more than 100 years. Powered by differentiated brands including Pringles®, Cheez-It®, Pop-Tarts®, Kellogg's Rice Krispies Treats®, RXBAR®, Eggo®, MorningStar Farms®, Special K®, Coco Pops®, and more, Kellanova's vision is to become the world's best-performing snacks-led company, unleashing the full potential of our differentiated brands and our passionate people. Our Net Sales for 2023 were $13 Billion. At Kellanova, our purpose is to create better days and ensure everyone has a seat at the table through our trusted food brands. We are committed to promoting sustainable and equitable food access by tackling the crossroads of hunger, sustainability, wellbeing, and equity, diversity & inclusion. Our goal is to create Better Days for 4 billion people by the end of 2030 (from a 2015 baseline). For more detailed information about our commitments, our approach to achieving these goals, and methodology, please visit our website at Forward-Looking Statements This press release, and any related oral statements, includes statements that constitute 'forward-looking statements' within the meaning of the Private Securities Litigation Reform Act of 1995, Section 27A of the Securities Act of 1933 and Section 21E of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, each as amended, including statements regarding the pending acquisition (the 'Merger') of Kellanova (the 'Company') by Mars, Incorporated ('Mars'), regulatory approvals, the expected timetable for completing the Merger, the expected benefits and other effects of the Merger, the integration of the companies, the combined business going forward and any other statements regarding the Company's future expectations, beliefs, plans, objectives, financial conditions, assumptions or future events or performance that are not historical facts. This information may involve risks and uncertainties that could cause actual results to differ materially from such forward-looking statements. These risks and uncertainties include, but are not limited to: the timing to consummate the Merger and the risk that the Merger may not be completed at all or the occurrence of any event, change, or other circumstances that could give rise to the termination of the merger agreement, including circumstances requiring a party to pay the other party a termination fee pursuant to the merger agreement; the risk that the conditions to closing of the Merger may not be satisfied or waived; the risk that a governmental or regulatory approval that may be required for the Merger is not obtained or is obtained subject to conditions that are not anticipated; potential litigation relating to, or other unexpected costs resulting from, the Merger; legislative, regulatory, and economic developments; risks that the Merger disrupts the Company's current plans and operations; the risk that certain restrictions during the pendency of the Merger may impact the Company's ability to pursue certain business opportunities or strategic transactions; the diversion of management's time on transaction-related issues; continued availability of capital and financing and rating agency actions; the risk that any announcements relating to the Merger could have adverse effects on the market price of the Company's common stock, credit ratings or operating results; and the risk that the proposed transaction and its announcement could have an adverse effect on the ability to retain and hire key personnel, to retain customers and to maintain relationships with business partners, suppliers and customers. All statements, other than statements of historical fact, should be considered forward-looking statements made in good faith by the Company, as applicable, and are intended to qualify for the safe harbor from liability established by the Private Securities Litigation Reform Act of 1995. When used in this communication, or any other documents, words such as 'anticipate,' 'believe,' 'estimate,' 'expect,' 'forecast,' 'goal,' 'intend,' 'objective,' 'plan,' 'project,' 'seek,' 'strategy,' 'target,' 'will' and similar expressions are intended to identify forward-looking statements. These forward-looking statements are based on the beliefs and assumptions of management at the time that these statements were prepared and are inherently uncertain. Such forward-looking statements are subject to risks and uncertainties that could cause the Company's actual results to differ materially from those expressed or implied in the forward-looking statements. These risks and uncertainties, as well as other risks and uncertainties that could cause the actual results to differ materially from those expressed in the forward-looking statements, are described in greater detail in the Company's reports filed with the United States Securities and Exchange Commission (the 'SEC'), including the Company's Annual Report on Form 10-K for the year ended December 28, 2024, subsequent Quarterly Reports on Form 10-Q, Current Reports on Forms 8-K and other SEC filings made by the Company. The Company cautions that these risks and factors are not exclusive. Management cautions against putting undue reliance on forward-looking statements or projecting any future results based on such statements or present or prior earnings levels. Forward-looking statements speak only as of the date of this Report, and, except as required by applicable law, the Company does not undertake any obligation to update or supplement any forward-looking statements to reflect actual results, new information, future events, changes in its expectations or other circumstances that exist after the date as of which the forward-looking statements were made. View source version on Disclaimer: The above press release comes to you under an arrangement with Business Wire. Business Upturn takes no editorial responsibility for the same. Ahmedabad Plane Crash
Business Wire
26-06-2025
- Business
- Business Wire
Mars' Pending Acquisition of Kellanova Clears FTC Antitrust Review
MCLEAN, Va. & CHICAGO--(BUSINESS WIRE)--Mars, Incorporated, a family-owned, global leader in pet care, snacking and food, and Kellanova (NYSE: K), a leader in global snacking, international cereal and noodles and North America frozen foods, today announced that the U.S. Federal Trade Commission (FTC) has concluded its antitrust review of Mars' pending acquisition of Kellanova. Mars' Pending Acquisition of Kellanova Clears FTC Antitrust Review Poul Weihrauch, CEO & Office of the President, Mars, Incorporated, said: 'We are very pleased that the FTC has completed its review of the transaction without the imposition of any condition or requiring any remedy. The transaction has now received all but one of the 28 required regulatory clearances, with only the review by the European Commission outstanding. This brings us one step closer to uniting two iconic businesses with complementary footprints and portfolios, allowing us to deliver more choice and innovation to consumers.' Steve Cahillane, Chairman, President & CEO, Kellanova, said: 'This represents a significant milestone on our path to combine Mars Snacking and Kellanova. We continue to believe this is an exciting opportunity to create a broader, global snacking business that is better positioned to meet evolving consumer needs and preferences.' Based on the current status of the ongoing antitrust review by the European Commission, Mars and Kellanova expect the transaction to close towards the end of 2025, subject to customary closing conditions. The exact timing cannot be predicted with any certainty at this point. About Mars, Incorporated Mars, Incorporated is driven by the belief that the world we want tomorrow starts with how we do business today. As a global, family-owned business, Mars is transforming, innovating, and evolving to make a positive impact on the world. Across our diverse and expanding portfolio of quality snacking, food, and pet care products and services, we employ 150,000+ dedicated Associates. With more than $50 billion in annual sales, we produce some of the world's best-loved brands including Ben's Original ™, CESAR ®, Cocoavia ®, DOVE ®, EXTRA ®, KIND ®, M&M's ®, SNICKERS ®, PEDIGREE ®, ROYAL CANIN ®, and WHISKAS ®. We are creating A Better World for Pets through our global network of pet hospitals and diagnostic services – including AniCura, BANFIELD ™, BLUEPEARL ™, Linnaeus and VCA ™ – using cutting edge technology to develop breakthrough programs in genetic health screening and DNA testing. For more information about Mars, please visit Join us on Facebook, Instagram, LinkedIn and YouTube. About Kellanova Kellanova (NYSE: K) is a leader in global snacking, international cereal and noodles, and North America frozen foods with a legacy stretching back more than 100 years. Powered by differentiated brands including Pringles ®, Cheez-It ®, Pop-Tarts ®, Kellogg's Rice Krispies Treats ®, RXBAR ®, Eggo ®, MorningStar Farms ®, Special K ®, Coco Pops ®, and more, Kellanova's vision is to become the world's best-performing snacks-led company, unleashing the full potential of our differentiated brands and our passionate people. Our Net Sales for 2023 were $13 Billion. At Kellanova, our purpose is to create better days and ensure everyone has a seat at the table through our trusted food brands. We are committed to promoting sustainable and equitable food access by tackling the crossroads of hunger, sustainability, wellbeing, and equity, diversity & inclusion. Our goal is to create Better Days for 4 billion people by the end of 2030 (from a 2015 baseline). For more detailed information about our commitments, our approach to achieving these goals, and methodology, please visit our website at Forward-Looking Statements This press release, and any related oral statements, includes statements that constitute 'forward-looking statements' within the meaning of the Private Securities Litigation Reform Act of 1995, Section 27A of the Securities Act of 1933 and Section 21E of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, each as amended, including statements regarding the pending acquisition (the 'Merger') of Kellanova (the 'Company') by Mars, Incorporated ('Mars'), regulatory approvals, the expected timetable for completing the Merger, the expected benefits and other effects of the Merger, the integration of the companies, the combined business going forward and any other statements regarding the Company's future expectations, beliefs, plans, objectives, financial conditions, assumptions or future events or performance that are not historical facts. This information may involve risks and uncertainties that could cause actual results to differ materially from such forward-looking statements. These risks and uncertainties include, but are not limited to: the timing to consummate the Merger and the risk that the Merger may not be completed at all or the occurrence of any event, change, or other circumstances that could give rise to the termination of the merger agreement, including circumstances requiring a party to pay the other party a termination fee pursuant to the merger agreement; the risk that the conditions to closing of the Merger may not be satisfied or waived; the risk that a governmental or regulatory approval that may be required for the Merger is not obtained or is obtained subject to conditions that are not anticipated; potential litigation relating to, or other unexpected costs resulting from, the Merger; legislative, regulatory, and economic developments; risks that the Merger disrupts the Company's current plans and operations; the risk that certain restrictions during the pendency of the Merger may impact the Company's ability to pursue certain business opportunities or strategic transactions; the diversion of management's time on transaction-related issues; continued availability of capital and financing and rating agency actions; the risk that any announcements relating to the Merger could have adverse effects on the market price of the Company's common stock, credit ratings or operating results; and the risk that the proposed transaction and its announcement could have an adverse effect on the ability to retain and hire key personnel, to retain customers and to maintain relationships with business partners, suppliers and customers. All statements, other than statements of historical fact, should be considered forward-looking statements made in good faith by the Company, as applicable, and are intended to qualify for the safe harbor from liability established by the Private Securities Litigation Reform Act of 1995. When used in this communication, or any other documents, words such as 'anticipate,' 'believe,' 'estimate,' 'expect,' 'forecast,' 'goal,' 'intend,' 'objective,' 'plan,' 'project,' 'seek,' 'strategy,' 'target,' 'will' and similar expressions are intended to identify forward-looking statements. These forward-looking statements are based on the beliefs and assumptions of management at the time that these statements were prepared and are inherently uncertain. Such forward-looking statements are subject to risks and uncertainties that could cause the Company's actual results to differ materially from those expressed or implied in the forward-looking statements. These risks and uncertainties, as well as other risks and uncertainties that could cause the actual results to differ materially from those expressed in the forward-looking statements, are described in greater detail in the Company's reports filed with the United States Securities and Exchange Commission (the 'SEC'), including the Company's Annual Report on Form 10-K for the year ended December 28, 2024, subsequent Quarterly Reports on Form 10-Q, Current Reports on Forms 8-K and other SEC filings made by the Company. The Company cautions that these risks and factors are not exclusive. Management cautions against putting undue reliance on forward-looking statements or projecting any future results based on such statements or present or prior earnings levels. Forward-looking statements speak only as of the date of this Report, and, except as required by applicable law, the Company does not undertake any obligation to update or supplement any forward-looking statements to reflect actual results, new information, future events, changes in its expectations or other circumstances that exist after the date as of which the forward-looking statements were made.
New York Times
15-05-2025
- Entertainment
- New York Times
In Her Botanical Paintings, Hilma af Klint Hurtles Back to Earth
From 1856 until the 1960s, schoolchildren in Sweden had to pass annual botanical examinations quite literally in the field. Each spring they roamed the meadows and forests to collect 50 to 150 specimens, then pressed, annotated and classified those plants in the tradition of that late great Swedish naturalist, Linnaeus. Hilma af Klint, born in 1862, was one such child. Long before she brought the art world to its knees in a posthumous 2018 retrospective that proved a female artist had made serious formal abstractions years before Kazimir Malevich and Wassily Kandinsky, af Klint was a schoolgirl in Stockholm, where, according to her report cards, she made only B's in the natural sciences but an A in 'Attention.' Fifty years passed. After a public career in illustration and a private one in Protestant occultism, she made attention her theme once more in the floral portfolio she turned to in middle age, with breath-held minuteness, in the spring of 1919, while living on the island of Munso with her ailing mother. The resulting 46 watercolors, never before exhibited, are now on view in the show 'What Stands Behind the Flowers' at the Museum of Modern Art, hung with some 50 other af Klints on paper plus a handful of relevant botanical materials under glass. Ebullient, rigorous and boastfully esoteric, these 'Nature Studies,' as she called them, reveal the didactic side of a pioneer in nonliteral art. This is an economical show of some beautiful field exercises, and it suggests the spiritual extremes to which the honorable but often tedious tradition of botanical illustration might be taken. Hepatica, a relative of the buttercup, comes up first in that northern clime. That plant opens her atlas on April 22 — she dated each species in pencil — with coffee-colored smears of earth. She then paints in noodles and hearts of negative space for the stems and leaves. Then she traces those empties with an earthy-wine spectrum of reds, purples and greens. Hepatica has, like poppies and nettle, hairy stems. So within those stems she picks up the dry edge of her brush with shaggy tweaks, to suggest follicles in sunlight. Up top, in a spot illustration of the blossom, she fills in the bright purple petals but dodges with her brush seemingly microscopic whiskers of stamen. Detail seems to have increased through summer, sometimes seven plants to a sheet, roots and all. The staccato red dreadlocks of a Lombardy poplar in mid-bloom (May 3), the leaves of a Swedish whitebeam that she has wet-lifted with cloth to achieve the right leathery effect (June 16), the kinked stem of a harebell (Aug. 2). All on awkwardly skinny paper resembling a diner menu. That choice makes sense when you see the herbal collection sheets from a different Swedish schoolchild of af Klint's generation, which the show's curator, Jodi Hauptman of the Modern, has displayed for context. They're the same size. In her midlife project, af Klint returned to the scale of grade school, and she arranged her compositions in the manner of plant pressing. (With the exception of a bird and some bugs, her hope to include animals and minerals in the project went unrealized.) Her early professional botanicals, also on display, reveal an important difference in technique. In those she outlined the plant parts in ink. This makes her barleys and thistles look instructional in the manner of an illustrated plant guide. (Several guides from af Klint's day are here.) But the later, more practiced herbals at the heart of this show are largely inkless, sketched in pencil at most. This creates an effect like sun on a living thing. Color and light. All very nice. But what keeps you looking is the evangelically mystical bottom half of these paintings. At the foot of each specimen af Klint has penciled and colored a small diagram explaining, hence this show's title, 'what stands behind the flowers.' In crisp geometries, line work and touches of metallic paint, the pictograms imagine the spiritual states and the motives that she believes emanate from these vegetal beings. Her corresponding notebook, under glass nearby, explains these diagrams in charmingly factual prose. To bird vetch, a creeping vine with hanging clusters of purple flowers, she gives a Fibonacci spiral in brown, gray and black, with colored arrows indicating an inward directional flow. Vetch, we learn, boasts a 'spiritual initiative that uplifts the organs of our soul and body.' European anemone, on the other hand — a flower she captures in both its limp and its fully opened states — gives 'ignorance.' Her symbol for it is a hexagram, the down triangle blue, the up one yellow. And so on for 119 species. Some very efficient exhibition design makes this secret taxonomy at the very least legible — with translations from her notebook in the wall text and magnifying glasses on hand for your scrutiny of the illustrations. (You will need them.) Fall paused the flowers. In January her mother died. By spring, 1920, af Klint resumed her atlas with apparent bleakness. The clammy campion, a fuchsia-colored flower with a sticky stem, stands for 'one-sidedness.' Purple lousewort: 'self-interest.' A sedge: 'gluttony.' A few creatures — an ant, a mosquito, a spider — get upside-down crosses in black, decorated by auras of blood red and gray. However it worked, this particular expression of her moral logic came at a fulcrum. Af Klint had formerly belonged to The Five, a quintet of mediums who held Biblically induced seances in order to transcribe voices from the beyond. In those sessions she scribbled automatically into sketchbooks, which she later transcribed — sometimes collaboratively — in now-famous canvases circa 1906-1908. In the MoMA show, which is almost a mini retrospective, several small solo af Klints from that period, from her 'US Series' (1908), reveal her fixation on the possibility that a numinous reality underpins our visible one. In this context, their shapes seem cordate and herbal, like petals. The same kind of search, though expressed in the harder geometries of quartered squares and Pac-Man-like forms, appears in a wall of her 'Atom Series' (1917) interpreting quantum physics. By her Munso era, she had directed that investigation back toward the visible. Divorced from The Five, she had discovered the Christian occultist Rudolf Steiner, the founder of Anthroposophy and the Waldorf Schools, who, in the old spirit of Protestant mystics dating back to Jakob Böhme, championed the private relationship to God's Word but also pined for the symbolism and mystery of Catholicism. In her Nature Series you can feel those conflicting desires. For one, she is aggressively obscure. Like a Latin mass, the Star of David yin-yang she gives to the pot marigold hides as much from us as it reveals. But at the same time, her herbals want to interpret God's work with the simplest, most public of all evidence. They prove she is a microcosmic thinker in the company of Francis Quarles's poetic 'Emblems,' Walt Whitman's 'every atom,' Joni Mitchell's 'We are stardust' — and an abstractionist, like Georgia O'Keeffe, who based her experiments upon strict observation of her emotional response to the seasons. The odd humility of these paintings makes all the more sense when we consider that this is an artist who had already reached the stratosphere of visual avant-garde. Recall John Cage, who after writing the headiest piece of nonmusic in history devoted himself to the study of mushrooms. Try for yourself: MoMA has planted several of these species out back in its sculpture garden. Better yet, take the train north to Fort Tryon Park, and study untried ones. At MoMA, a wall of bright and hasty energy paintings from 1922 wraps the show — wet-on-wet watercolors with only vague kinships to their herbal titles: 'Oak,' 'Pansy,' 'Birch.' After her years transcribing tendrils and anthers, they are sloppy and fun, like cannonball dives into the placid surface of a lake. They are also less interesting. But they are edgy in their way, and representative of the proto-New Age paintings she would make under the spell of Steiner's theories on color and comparative religion (she owned 120 titles by him) until her death in 1944. These days, galleries are full of the mystical vocabulary that af Klint did much to create: a whole easy-bake coven of painters quoting the Zodiac and Mother Earth in millennial hues that reproduce well onscreen. Like any pioneer, she paid that first tax of rejection. In 1926 she submitted her 'Nature Studies' and notebook to Steiner's headquarters in Switzerland, in the hope of publication. They declined. (MoMA acquired it in 2022.) But a Steiner librarian, writing to her in 1927, did express the consolation that her floral atlas might eventually be 'recognized for its value when the time came for it' and someone 'would have the means to make the work accessible to the public.' High time. Hilma af Klint: What Stands Behind the Flowers Through Sept. 27, Museum of Modern Art, 11 West 53rd Street, (212) 708-9400;
The Hindu
06-05-2025
- Science
- The Hindu
How are species named?
Christening a new species is no child's play. Thousands of animals and plant species are discovered every year. Once these new species are discovered, it is necessary to give them an identification, a name. And the task falls on the scientists who identified the new species. A lot goes into it, and scientists often come up with intriguing names, with some being named after fantastical creatures and celebrities even! In most cases, these quirky names are given to draw attention of the public while some are named as an homage to the personalities. A brief history Naming organisms is necessary to classify and document them, thereby helping us manage them better (such as planning conservation strategies). So how do we name the species? It all traces back to Swedish naturalist Carolus Linnaeus. The formal classification that is internationally accepted had its origin in the 1750s, with the Linnaean system of binomial nomenclature, created by the naturalist. He is considered the founder of modern taxonomy and was the first to use binomial nomenclature. Over the years, Linnaeus's rules and procedures have undergone a lot of modifications. A species (animal or plant) is thus designated by two parts, with the first identifying the genus to which it belongs and the second the species. Take for instance the case of us, modern humans. The scientific name is homo sapiens. Homo is the genus, Sapiens is the species, and we are the only member of the genus Homo that is not extinct. This internationally understood nomenclature is paramount to documenting all the species on our planet. While International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) regulates the zoological nomenclature or the naming of animals, the International Association of Plant Taxonomy (IAPT) controls the scientific naming of plant diversity such as algae, fungi, and plants. Quite often species are named after their characteristics. At times, they are named after celebrities, fictional characters, projects or sometimes simply using some quirky play of words. Species named after iconic personalities Did you know that there is a wasp species named after Colombian singer-songwriter Shakira? Or that an entire genus of ferns named after American musician Lady Gaga? Back in 2022, a millipede (Nannaria swiftae) in North America was named after singer-songwriter Taylor Swift. British nature historian Sir David Attenborough has more than 40 species of animals and plants named after him (and counting, we must say!). Many species have been named after U.S. Presidents. For instance, the first U.S. president George Washington has a parasitic wasp living in Costa Rica named after him, called Heterospilus washingtoni. An ant that lives in the Venezuelan Amazon was named after the English rock band Radiohead. It is called Sericomyrmex radioheadi. But what is the logic behind giving the names of celebrities? Mostly, it is to bring attention to the species whose discovery might sometimes go unnoticed by the public or it can be done as an homage. For instance, while describing the species Sericomyrmex radiohead, the scientists said that it was an ode to the band's efforts at environmental activism. 'Attributing the name of a personality to a species began as a way to poke fun at people. When it comes to naming a creature several aspects are taken into account. Sometimes it is the unique characteristic that might be highlighted in the name or the habitat in which it is found. Sometimes, the species can be cryptic or similar to an already described species. This is when these fancy names come in. They are named after scientists, projects, celebrities, and universities as a means to honour them,' says Dr. Sandeep Das, national post-doctoral fellow at the University of Calicut who, along with his team, has described more than 20 species. A lizard he described has been named Agasthyagama edge, as an ode to the Zoological Society of London's international program, EDGE which works towards the conservation of the Evolutionarily Distinct and Globally Endangered species. 'The lizard is also unique and the second species from that genus and hence we chose to name it so,' says Sandeep. There are still debates ongoing in the scientific community on naming the creatures after celebrities. For instance, some names are considered problematic by certain sections, such as the name given to a cave beetle. Christened Anophthalmus hitleri, the species is named after Adolf Hitler. There have been several calls from various sections to change the name as some find it offensive to name it after someone who perpetrated genocide. The species had even become a target of some memorabilia collectors. Species named after a mission When researcher Vishnudattan N.K. described the third marine tardigrade in India, it was around the time India launched its enviable Chandrayaan-3 moon mission. Its landing near the south pole of the moon was a first for any nation to achieve. So what better way to commemorate the occasion and pay homage to this glorious event than to name a species after the mission? And thus the marine tardigrade was named Batillipes chandrayaani. The new species of marine tardigrade was discovered from the southeast coast of Tamil Nadu. 'I thought of the name as a homage to the mission. It was a prestigious occasion. So I thought of naming the species after the mission. Moreover, it could also draw attention to the species and popularise it among the public,' says Vishnu, the lead author of the study and former senior research fellow, Department of Marine Biology, CUSAT. The first marine tardigrade species he described was named Stygarctus keralensis, as a homage to the state of Kerala and the second marine tardigrade species as Batillipes kalami, honouring Abdul Kalam. Species named after places Like Stygarctus keralensis, another species that is named after a state is the Gekko mizoramensis, a parachute gecko, described by the researchers of the Max Planck Institute for Biology based in Tübingen, Germany. This nocturnal, arboreal lizard has been named after the northeastern state of Mizoram after it was discovered from there. Another example would be Pinanga subterranea, a species of palm tree. The name refers to the palm's subterranean habitat. It is the first palm described as one flowering and fruiting underground. Species named after fictional characters The world of fiction, mythology, and fantasy has inspired the names of many species. Not to mention imaginary places such as Hogwarts being the inspiration behind the naming of the dinosaur Dracorex hogwartsia. The fossilised remains of the dino reminded the scientists of the dragons in the 'Harry Potter' series, following which they named the dinosaur after the magical school of Hogwarts. Dracorex hogwartsia means 'dragon king of Hogwarts.' The magical creatures in English writer J.R.R. Tolkien's work are often used to name new species. Gollumjapyx smeagol (named after the fictional character Gollum), Oxyprimus galadrielae (based on the character Galadriel), Macrostyphlus gandalf (based on the character Gandalf), and so on are some examples. Science fiction writer H.P. Lovecraft's mythical creature Chtulhu has also been an inspiration for many scientists. Cthulhu macrofasciculumque and Cthylla microfasciculumque are some of the species named after the creature. Mythology and religion are also sources of names. Catchphrases from fiction and TV characters are also used. For instance, Kermit the Frog, the star of the children's television series 'The Muppet Show' has inspired the naming of Kermitops gratus, a species of an ancient amphibian ancestor. Kodama jujutsu, a species of pygmy squid, is another species name formed by joining 'Kodama', a tree spirit in Japanese folklore and 'jujutsu', a martial art of the same name. The list is indeed endless. Quirky, idiosyncratic names Then there are names that leave you bemused. There is an amusing play of words here. Take the case of Gelae baen, Gelae fish, Gelae rol, Gelae belae and Gelae donut. These are all types of fungus beetles. Orizabus subaziro is a scarab beetle discovered from Oaxaca, Mexico. Note the play of words here. It is a palindromic name. Sometimes scientists choose to rhyme, for instance, Cedusa medusa or go for quirky, humourous names such as Ytu brutus or Inglorious mediocris. And sometimes the species gets a name like Erythroneura ix. The leafhopper was named so when the scientists reached the ninth species of the leafhopper. How are species discovered ? So how do the scientists find these species? Sometimes the species can just surprise you, like how the tardigrade Stygarctus keralensis did. Vishnu was in fact on a different research, as he was identifying the meiofauna (small benthic invertebrates) along the coastal regions. 'It was while the samples were being investigated that the species caught my attention. It was something new,' he recalls. After further investigation, he identified the genus and eventually arrived at a conclusion that the mysterious creature is in fact a new species, a marine tardigrade, thereby becoming India's first marine tardigrade species to be described. The story of the third species is even more interesting. 'When I got the samples and identified the second tardigrade, I observed something that looked like the tardigrade's juvenile. But on further investigations I realised that it was indeed an adult and that it was a new species of tardigrade,' he says. Vishnu and his team have to their credits all three discoveries of the marine tardigrade species in India. The studies were carried out under the supervision of Dr. S. Bijoy Nandan, Dean of the School of Marine Sciences, CUSAT. Knowledge of indigenous communities Discovering a new species can thus be something totally unexpected or it might be a planned investigation. But the role indigenous communities play in species identification is something the larger public may not be widely aware of. Their knowledge is an untapped wealth. 'Local ecological knowledge is an emerging branch in science. Indigenous people may know many aspects of the wild that we do not. They might even have different names for these species. They have a strong knowledge about our forests and its biodiversity,' adds Sandeep.
