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The Hindu
15-05-2025
- General
- The Hindu
A thousand Buddhas
We have all heard how there is no one single Ramayana, there are many — 300 at least. But no one tells us there is not just one Buddha; that there are dozens, maybe thousands, perhaps even millions, as per the earliest Buddhist scriptures. Also, there are hundreds of versions of his tale, in Pali and Sanskrit and Chinese and Japanese. No one clarifies that the historical Buddha we are so familiar with is a 19th century European invention. India had forgotten Buddha by the time the British arrived. So, effectively, the British rediscovered him in the 19th century. The discovery of Pali manuscripts from Sri Lanka and Buddhist sites in the Gangetic plains was the greatest triumph of the Asiatic Society and Archaeological Survey of India. The British scholars were convinced that this cultural amnesia about Buddha was a deliberate cover-up, a Brahmin conspiracy. They used the Buddha to put clueless Hindu intellectuals on the defensive. And it worked. A European creation? In the vast literary corpus of Buddhism were found stories of Gautama Buddha travelling to Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Thailand in his lifetime. There were fantastic tales of him fighting Mara, the demon of desire, and realistic ones of his death following a bout of dysentery after eating pork or mushrooms. European historians took it upon themselves to decide which of these stories were true. Thus, a historical Buddha was imagined. He died, depending on which text was consulted, a century, two centuries, maybe eight centuries before Ashoka's coronation. Japanese scholars of the early 20th century listed over 40 theories about Buddha's birth date. The site of his birth and death were identified based on traditional pilgrim routes, not evidence. The Orientalists argued that the Pali texts were older, more conservative, more historical, while Sanskrit texts were later corruptions. But that is not backed up by evidence. The earliest Buddhist manuscripts were recently discovered in Gandhara, dated to 100 BC. Many of them are in Sanskrit. They speak of many Buddhas, following a repetitive pattern that is also found in contemporary Jain mythology, and even in Valmiki's Ramayana. They also do not speak of the 'four noble truths'. These are simply mentioned amongst other truths. No one knows which language Buddha spoke in. Pali was a language used by Sri Lankan Buddhist monks around 500 AD, to distinguish themselves from rival Mahayana schools. Of masculinity and Krishna lore The earliest biographies of the Buddha (Buddhacharita, Lalitavistara Sūtra, Mahāvastu) were compiled only by 200 AD, roughly when the Ramayana and Mahabharata were also compiled. By this time, images of Buddha's conception, his birth, enlightenment and death had started appearing on the railings surrounding stupas in Sanchi, Bharhut, Mathura and Gandhara. He had started being shown in human form, with Vedic gods such as Indra and Brahma bowing to him. None of the early biographies refer to the ultimate episode, the death or parinirvana. This came from Mahaparinibbana-sutta, dated to 500 AD. In the early biographies, Buddha's wife is not named and is simply mentioned as Rahula's mother. There are indications that a wife and a son were introduced only to establish Buddha's masculinity. In the Chinese Ocean Sutra, there are many magical tales of how courtesans who doubt Buddha's manliness are taught a lesson by him, appearing as a client. There are stories where the prince of the Sakya clan has two wives, and sometimes even three. Yashodhara is won in a competition; Mrigaja praises his beauty; Gopa falls in love with him. Yashodhara embodies pure love while Gopa embodies carnal love, in late Tantrik Buddhist texts, perhaps influenced by Krishna lore. In Pali versions, Buddha's son Rahula is born on the day of his departure. In Sanskrit versions, the child is conceived on that night. There are stories stating that the pregnant Yashodhara gave birth to Rahula on the day Buddha attained enlightenment. She was accused of infidelity and had to prove her purity, much like Sita. That we translate Gautama's transformation into Buddha as 'enlightenment' rather than 'heightened awareness' reveals how intimately the construction of Buddha's history is linked to European Orientalists of 19th century, who saw in him the Aryan sage they were looking for — outside the Christian world, and also outside Hindu idolatry. They presented Buddhism as a Protestant movement, a rejection of Vedic ritualism. They were constructing Indian history using the framework of European Christian history. They established Buddha as historical in contrast to the mythic Ram and Krishna of the Hindus. That wound festers even today, since many scholars and activists still assume these European inventions as facts. No one wants their religious leader to be just a myth — a creation of faith, a construction of the faithful. But it almost always is. Devdutt Pattanaik is the author of 50 books on mythology, art and culture.
Indian Express
01-05-2025
- General
- Indian Express
Opinion Northeast India is not only magnificent but also strategically crucial. Our textbooks must reflect that
A close examination of NCERT school textbooks reveals a persistent exclusion of Northeast India from the socio-cultural and historical narratives around India. The region struggles to find recognition within the broader conception of the nation. The glaring omission of Northeast India's history, society and culture from NCERT textbooks suggests that the people of this region are not acknowledged as sharing common elements — collective memory, identity, historical territory, myths of origin and symbols — with the rest of India. This exclusion, including in the latest revisions of the textbooks, renders them invisible. A particularly concerning example is the social science textbook for class VII students titled Exploring Society: India and Beyond. Although Chapter 8 of the book, 'How the Land Becomes Sacred', discusses India's sacred geography, the minimal representation of the Northeast remains a matter of concern, implying to young students that it is regarded as profane rather than sacred — an unsettling perspective that marginalises its rich heritage. Northeast India is an ecological marvel, characterised by towering blue mountain ranges and intricate hilly terrain interwoven with rivers, streams, rivulets, meadows, and woodlands. The northernmost reaches are home to the impenetrable Eastern Himalayas, where diverse communities have long resided. Local myths, legends, folklore, customs, beliefs, and traditions are deeply rooted in this sacred landscape. The mighty Brahmaputra River, entering the Assam plains as the Lohit River, meets the Siang River to the west, merging near Pasighat, famously known as the land of hanging bridges in Arunachal Pradesh. Encircled by hills and mountains, the Brahmaputra Valley is a thriving cultural hub, hosting an array of rituals, fairs, and festivals. Nestled on Nilachal Hill along its banks is the world-renowned Kamakhya Temple, believed to house 51 sacred Shakti Peethas. The valley itself reflects a deep-rooted cultural continuity with the Indo-Gangetic plains. Above the Brahmaputra Valley lies Arunachal Pradesh — known as the Land of the Dawn-lit Mountains or Land of the Rising Sun — primarily inhabited by indigenous tribes, including Buddhist communities practising Mahayana and Hinayana traditions. The people of Arunachal Pradesh regard their landscape as being inhabited by spirits, embedding spirituality within their way of life. To the south of the Brahmaputra Valley lie the rugged mountain tracts of Nagaland: The Land of Festivals; Meghalaya: The Abode of Clouds; and Mizoram: The Land of Blue Mountains, adjacent to one another. Tripura extends into the hills and the plains of the larger Brahmaputra basin, forming a crucial part of this diverse ecological and cultural fabric. These states are distinguished by their varied topography — rugged hills, blue mountains, and networks of streams, rivers, and gentle rivulets. Manipur, often called the Switzerland of India, is a hilly and mountainous state with a small oval-shaped valley at its centre. The Northeast also houses numerous sacred groves — over 280 in Assam, more than 100 in Arunachal Pradesh, and 166 in Manipur, locally known as Umanglais. The region has innumerable water bodies too. The famous Loktak Lake, nestled in the Manipur Valley, is a unique freshwater body where floating houses thrive. The fisherfolk who inhabit the lake have a deep spiritual connection with its cosmology, believing it to be under the protection of Goddess Ima Lairembi. For these communities, their sacred ecology holds immense emancipatory power, sustaining their exuberant existence and cultural continuity. The Northeast is home to 45 million people and stands as India's most ethnically diverse region, with over 400 languages and dialects. It embodies more than half of India's experiential diversity — including ethnicity, customs, traditions, languages, beliefs, attire, and cuisine. A vital crossroads of cultures, it serves as India's gateway to trade, commerce, and cultural exchange with East and Southeast Asia. Northeast India's culture and geographical position, therefore, can play a crucial role in shaping India's Act East Policy. Therefore, incorporating Northeast India's socio-cultural traditions in NCERT textbooks isn't just about representation, fairness, inclusivity, and educating young minds with a well-rounded understanding of their country's heritage. It's time the education system embraces the Northeast's rich legacy, ensuring that its history and traditions are given the space and attention they deserve.
