Latest news with #PotsdamDeclaration
Japan Forward
19 hours ago
- Politics
- Japan Forward
How Japan's Generals Defended the Homeland Against the Soviet Invasion
August 15 marks the anniversary of the end of World War II. But 80 years ago that day, fighting still raged as the Soviet Union unilaterally declared war against Japan on August 8, 1945, and began its invasion the next day. One of those conflicts was the Battle of Shumshu Island, reported on August 10 in The Sankei Shimbun . Even after Japan accepted the Potsdam Declaration, the Soviet army pressed on with its invasion. In response, Lieutenant General Kiichiro Higuchi, commander of the 5th Army, ordered, "Resolutely counterattack and crush the landing forces." Shumshu Island, located at the northern tip of the Kuril Islands. After a fierce battle on Shumshu Island, located in the northeasternmost of the Kuril Islands, a ceasefire was reached, with Japan maintaining the upper hand. Also facing active aggression from Russia, Lieutenant General Hiroshi Nemoto, then commander of the army stationed in Mongolia, refused to disarm in the face of the Soviet army's continued advancement through Manchuria and China. General Nemoto's gravesite in Sukagawa, Fukushima Prefecture. (©Robert D Eldridge) While holding back their attacks, Nemoto protected Japanese civilians until the last group fled by train. It is said that the Soviet Union had plans to occupy the northern half of Hokkaido. Without such acts of self-defense, the very map of Japan might have been altered. This is a piece of history worth remembering on the 80th anniversary of the war's end. Author: The Sankei Shimbun (Read this in Japanese )
a day ago
- Politics
China Urges Japan to Make Right Choice
Beijing, Aug. 15 (Jiji Press)--Chinese Foreign Minister Wang Yi, announcing on Friday the country's position regarding the 80th anniversary of the end of World War II, urged Japan to make the right choice. Remembering the past can help avoid straying onto the wrong path, Wang, also a member of the Political Bureau of the Communist Party of China's Central Committee, told a press conference held after his meeting with foreign ministers from Mekong River states, according to the Chinese Foreign Ministry. International documents such as the Potsdam Declaration clearly defined Japan's responsibility for the war and required it to return territories including Taiwan to China, Wang said. However, some in Japan are attempting to glorify its invasion and distort history, he said, calling such actions a challenge to the postwar international order. Also on Friday, Liu Jinsong, director-general of the Chinese ministry's Department of Asian Affairs, summoned Akira Yokochi, the No. 2 official at the Japanese Embassy in Beijing, and protested against visits to Tokyo's Yasukuni Shrine by cabinet ministers of the administration of Japanese Prime Minister Shigeru Ishiba and others on the day, which marked the 80th anniversary of Japan's surrender in World War II. [Copyright The Jiji Press, Ltd.]
Japan Forward
a day ago
- General
- Japan Forward
Launch of the Postwar Occupation: General Eichelberger's Diary
On this 80th anniversary of the end of the Pacific War, I introduce the third in a series from Lieutenant General Robert L Eichelberger's diary. In his own words, Eichelberger takes us from the day Japan accepted the Potsdam Declaration to the surrender ceremony, two and a half weeks later. In that time, he launched the Allied Powers' postwar occupation of the country. In the final installment, I introduce Eichelberger's account of his arrival at Atsugi Aerodrome on August 28. The latter story is well known. However, this may be the first time to quote directly from the diaries of the man in charge of the forward element and forces of the Occupation of Japan. Last of three parts Follow the series, General Eichelberger's Diary …The entire command group arose early and after arriving at Kadena strip at 0615 took off at 0700 for Atsugi airstrip. After one of the smoothest air trips I have ever had, we flew in over the Japanese coast and landed at Atsugi at 1200 where we were met at the plane by General [Joseph May] Swing. It immediately developed that two things would be critical. The transportation situation was particularly bad and although the Japanese had provided more than the number of vehicles requested none of them were in good working order. GHQ [General Headquarters of the Supreme Command for the Allied Powers, or SCAP] true to form and promptly grabbed off all the desirable pieces of equipment leaving very little for the latecomers. Whatever GHQ did not grab, FEAF did! I learned at once that the arrangements for the reception of General MacArthur were to say the least incomplete. Communication had not been maintained…and when I inspected the area where General MacArthur's plane was to land, I found practically nothing had been done there. This inspection was made in the company of General Swing who then took over upon my orders and prepared to receive SCAP. When SCAP arrived at 1500 the 11th Airborne band and an honor guard were drawn up, as were a small regiment of correspondents, and photographers, among whom Domei [official news media of the Empire of Japan] representatives were prominent. General MacArthur arrived at 1500 to the minute followed three minutes later by General [George C] Kenney and six minutes later by General [Carl] Spaatz. The latter two received a minimum of attention which may or may not have been accidental… General MacArthur's first statement as he walked out of the plane was, "How are you, Bob?" He then greeted [my Chief of Staff, Brigadier General] Clovis [E Byers] and General Swing and made a brief statement to the press in which he professed satisfaction at the attitude shown by the Japanese in adhering to the agreement. He stated he felt that there would be no unpleasant incident to mar the established truce. He and I then entered the sedan and drove to Yokohama preceded and followed by four truckloads of General Swing's infantry. A quick tour around the city was made and we finally arrived at the Grand Hotel where we were billeted for the night. General Robert L Eichelberger General Douglas MacArthur during the occupation of Japan. (Eichelberger story, screenshot, National Archives) August 30, 1945 (Yokohama Feather Merchants) By nightfall the operation had progressed as designed, the perimeter was established although no report had been received from the 4th Marines. A radio [message] was consequently sent to General [William T] Clement instructing him to report to me at 1000 tomorrow morning.... The New Grand Hotel was filling up rapidly and the most alarming feature was an ever-growing mass of feather merchants who had no part to play and no concern with the operation other than personal curiosity. These served to fill up the available hotel space to the point whereby late in the evening it had become a subject of considerable discussion, with the result that the Eighth Army was requested to make its rooms available for representatives coming in for the surrender ceremony. On hearing this I went out with a Japanese government representative and inspected and selected a house in the suburban area into which it was decided to move the following day. After dinner at the hotel I retired quite early. In the morning I attended a conference with staff members and had a brief interview with General MacArthur during which he indicated that it is his desire not only to move to Tokyo as soon as possible but to have Mrs MacArthur and little Arthur come up to live with him here. This would bear out the statement made by Mr [Sergio] Osmeña in Manila that he thought General MacArthur would no longer desire to live in the Philippines. The movement of Generals Byers and [Frank S] Bowen [Jr, of the G-3 Operations Division] and myself was completed by mid-afternoon and dinner was eaten at the new house. General Clement arrived at 1000 and a brief conference was held with him. The Marines, it developed, landed additional naval personnel for which they had a perfect out in the Operations Instructions which provided for additional troops "if required." Had lunch at the [hotel] and went to the house early in the afternoon where I took a siesta. During the day several difficulties came to a critical point. Eighth Army was required to leave the Grand Hotel and GHQ reaffirmed its acquisitive characteristic by trying to grab off every bit of office space in sight. The transportation problem also had to be fixed and late in the day General [Harold E] Eastwood [in charge of supply and resources] called a conference at which it was decided that all Japanese vehicles would be impounded and confined in a central pool…The impounding was to start at midnight and did so, although it was not very effective. Orders were received and the perimeter extended to the north at the request of the air corps who desire to take over four additional strips in the area west of Tokyo. Arrangements were also made to send the reconnaissance troop of the 11th Airborne Division to…the Tateyama area… September 1, 1945 (Saturday) I left the house at 0800 and arrived at the Customs Building at 0815 where I conferred with [radio broadcaster and war correspondent John] Howard Pyle for a few moments and then broadcast a personal interview with him asking the questions. The broadcast was made to San Francisco and Mrs [Emma] Eichelberger had been notified in advance that the program was going through. She will also be sent a recording of the broadcast. The broadcast went very well. At its completion I left with General Bowen for the Yokosuka naval base. Marine MP [Military Police] picked us up about two miles outside the naval base and we arrived to be greeted by an honor guard. [US Marine Corps] General Clement and Admiral [Oscar C.] Badger, commanding Task Force 31, received me at naval base headquarters. A short time was spent examining air photos of the area and we then went on a tour of the base itself. A large number of midget submarines were there and these were inspected with much interest…I inspected the flagship of Admiral [Heihachiro] Togo during the Russo-Japanese war. This ship has been beached and established as a training vessel. After this a short trip was taken around the area and at 1200 we went aboard the USS San Diego where we had lunch with Admiral Badger. Following lunch the machine shops of the naval base, the big dry dock and many of the small work shops were inspected. We happened to arrive at one jetty just as a Japanese [ship] was being moored. It had been surrendered early in the morning and had a small navy prize crew and one officer aboard…This was probably the most interesting thing seen all day, for the entire personnel of the captured vessel were on the deck and had just come to the shocking realization that they were in the hands of their American conquerors... US Army Airforce planes fly over Tokyo Bay during the surrender ceremony on the USS Missouri. (Courtesy US National Archives Identifier 520775) I was up at 0530 this morning and we took a destroyer out to the Missouri , arriving there about 0800. There were foreigners of all nationalities — Russians, Chinese, French, Aussies, English, etc — and I had a chance to talk to them all. We were lined up according to diagram and my place was on the front row of the army section between Generals [Courtney] Hodges and [Robert] Richardson and about five paces from the nearest Japanese. There were hundreds of newsmen and photographers and the ceremony was extremely im-pressive. General MacArthur had [prisoner of war survivors] General [Jonathan M] Wainwright and General [Arthur E] Percival (Singapore) stand with him as he signed. Just after the ceremony hundreds of our planes flew over the Missouri , including about 600 B-29ss. Dress was informal and I wore my tropical worsteds without tie, as did General MacArthur. Neither did he wear his ribbons. The Japanese premier was decked out in tails, striped trousers, top hat and gloves and was attended by two other civilians and some top military men… After lunch I returned to Yokohama by destroyer bringing with me the flag which flew on the Missouri during the ceremony. This I shall present to SCAP. It was also flown at Potsdam during the conference there.... The 1st Cavalry Division began landing today…XI Corps is also beginning to land. The weather continues bad and the airborne landings are proceeding very slowly..... In this way, the occupation of Japan would begin and continue for the next six and a half years, a length probably no one would accurately predict in the beginning. Eichelberger would step down as commanding general of the Eighth Army and depart Japan on August 4, 1948. He published his memoirs of World War II, Our Jungle Road to Tokyo , two years later in 1950 after serialization in the Saturday Evening Post . He passed away in 1961 from post-surgery complications. Reviewed by: Robert D Eldridge, PhD Dr Eldridge is a former political advisor to the US Marine Corps in Japan and author of numerous books on Japanese political and diplomatic history.
Tokyo Weekender
2 days ago
- Politics
- Tokyo Weekender
Emperor Hirohito's Surrender Broadcast
On this day 80 years ago, the Japanese public — with a few exceptions — heard the voice of Emperor Hirohito for the first time. Addressing the nation via a phonograph record, he announced that the government had accepted the Potsdam Declaration, which called for the 'unconditional surrender of all Japanese armed forces.' Known as 'Gyokuon-hoso' (the Jewel Voice Broadcast), it was delivered in formal Japanese and did not actually include the word kofuku (surrender). List of Contents: Events Leading to Hirohito's Surrender Broadcast Japan Accepts the Potsdam Declaration The Kyujo Incident The Jewel Voice Broadcast More From This Series Events Leading to Hirohito's Surrender Broadcast Six months prior to Hirohito's surrender broadcast, the heads of the governments of the so-called Big Three — Franklin D. Roosevelt, president of the US, Winston Churchill, the prime minister of the UK, and Joseph Stalin, the premier of the Soviet Union — met in Yalta, a coastal town in the Crimean Peninsula, to decide what to do with Germany and Europe after the war. With an Allied victory in Europe looking inevitable, attention also turned to the Pacific theater, with Roosevelt keen to get assurances from Stalin regarding Soviet participation in the war against Japan. Stalin agreed to enter the Pacific War within two to three months of Germany's surrender on the condition that the USSR would gain control of southern Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands, in addition to economic concessions in Manchuria. On August 8, 1945, Soviet foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov informed Japanese ambassador Naotake Sato that the USSR had declared war on Japan. The Soviet invasion of Manchuria commenced the following day, with more than 1 million troops being deployed. A few hours later, the US detonated an atomic bomb over the city of Nagasaki. This followed the bombing of Hiroshima three days earlier. Hundreds of thousands were killed or maimed due to the attacks. Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson described the decision to use atomic weapons on Japan as the 'least abhorrent choice.' He added that 'there was a very strong possibility that the Japanese government might decide on resistance to the end' and that 'major fighting would not end until the latter part of 1946.' This, he said, would have led to millions of casualties. Critics, however, argue that the two bombings were immoral and unnecessary, as Japan was already on the brink of surrendering. Emperor Hirohito in 1945 | Theodore Akimoto Family Collection / Wikimedia Japan Accepts the Potsdam Declaration Two weeks before the bombing of Hiroshima, the US, the UK and China issued the Potsdam Declaration, which stated that, if Japan didn't surrender, it would face 'prompt and utter destruction.' It also called for the elimination of authorities who'd 'deceived and misled the people of Japan into embarking on world conquest,' yet didn't mention the emperor or specifics about the government. In response, Prime Minister Kantaro Suzuki used the word 'mokusatsu,' which literally means to 'kill with silence.' An ambiguous word that could be translated in different ways, it was taken by the Allied powers as a de facto rejection. Following the atomic bombings and the USSR's invasion of Manchuria, Suzuki, along with Foreign Minister Shigenori Togo and Navy Minister Admiral Mitsumasa Yonai, was ready to accept the Potsdam Declaration on the condition that the emperor not be abolished. Opposing them were War Minister General Korechika Anami, Chief of the Army General Staff Yoshijiro Umezu and Navy Chief of Staff Admiral Soemu Toyoda. They were prepared to surrender, provided that Japan disarmed itself, conducted its own war trials and remained unoccupied after the war, in addition to the emperor retaining his position. Late on August 9, a gozen kaigi — a conference before the emperor — was called. In the suffocating heat of an underground shelter, the two deadlocked sides presented their arguments. Then came the historic moment when Emperor Hirohito addressed the room. Toward the end of his speech, he said, 'I swallow my tears and give my sanction to the proposal to accept the Allied proclamation on the basis outlined by the Foreign Minister. I've given serious thought to the situation prevailing at home and abroad and have concluded that continuing the war can only mean destruction for the nation and prolongation of bloodshed and cruelty in the world.' The Kyujo Incident Tokyo subsequently released a message to its ambassadors in Switzerland and Sweden, which was passed on to the Allies. Japan was prepared to accept the Potsdam Declaration as long as it didn't 'comprise any demand which prejudices the prerogatives of His Majesty as sovereign ruler.' The response from US Secretary of State James F. Byrnes, however, didn't explicitly guarantee the emperor's position. 'The ultimate form of government of Japan,' he wrote, 'shall, in accordance with the Potsdam Declaration, be established by the freely expressed will of the Japanese people.' Many officers at the War Ministry were concerned that the Japanese government and emperor would be sublimated under Allied command, forcing Hirohito into a ceremonial role. That was an outcome they couldn't tolerate. Led by Major Kenji Hatanaka, they took their concerns to General Anami — Japan's most important military figure — requesting his support in a coup d'état to prevent the acceptance of the Potsdam Declaration. He refused. Hatanaka, though, wasn't about to give up on the plan just yet. Gathering support from other officers, he prepared for one last push to keep the war going. At approximately 9:30 p.m. on August 14, Hatanaka's rebels put their plan into action. Their goal was to occupy the Imperial Palace — then known as Kyujo — in the hope that it would inspire the rest of the army to revolt. They also aimed to intercept Hirohito's surrender broadcast. To seize the palace, the rebels needed the cooperation of Lieutenant General Takeshi Mori. After refusing, he and his brother-in-law, Michinori Shiraishi, were murdered. Another group of Hatanaka's rebels planned to kill Prime Minister Suzuki at his office, but he escaped just before they arrived. General Anami also took his own life during the coup. Japanese civilians listening to the surrender broadcast, August 15 1945 | Wikimedia The Jewel Voice Broadcast By 8 a.m. on August 15, the rebellion had been entirely dismantled. Hatanaka then shot himself in the head shortly before Hirohito's surrender broadcast aired around midday. Recorded the previous day, it was reportedly smuggled to safety in a laundry basket. Lasting around four and a half minutes, it began with the words, 'To our good and loyal subjects: After pondering deeply the general trends of the world and the actual conditions obtaining in our empire today, we have decided to effect a settlement of the present situation by resorting to an extraordinary measure.' He went on to say that 'the war situation has developed, not necessarily to Japan's advantage,' adding that 'the enemy has begun to employ a new and most cruel bomb, the power of which to damage is indeed incalculable, taking the toll of many innocent lives.' The emperor acknowledged Japan's acceptance of the Potsdam Declaration, but didn't use the word 'surrender.' This lack of clarity, added to his use of formal courtly language and the poor quality of the audio, meant there was some confusion among the public following the speech. On September 2, 1945, Japan formally signed the Instrument of Surrender aboard the USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay, officially ending World War II. The Allies considered trying Emperor Hirohito as a war criminal, but ultimately decided against it. General Douglas MacArthur, who served as Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers overseeing the occupation of Japan from 1945 to 1951, believed the emperor was a key symbol uniting the Japanese people and, therefore, vital to the peaceful occupation of the nation. However, Hirohito was pressured to renounce his divinity, announcing on New Year's Day, 1946, that he wasn't a living god. Discover Tokyo, Every Week Get the city's best stories, under-the-radar spots and exclusive invites delivered straight to your inbox. By signing up, you agree to our Privacy Policy . More From This Series The Battle of Okinawa Ends Queen Arrives in Japan for First Asian Tour The JAL Mass Food Poisoning Incident
Japan Forward
3 days ago
- General
- Japan Forward
Preparing the Postwar Occupation from Okinawa: General Eichelberger's Diary
As part of my research over the years, I have become particularly interested in Lieutenant General Robert L Eichelberger. commander of the United States Eighth Army. Eichelberger was in charge of the occupation forces during the first three years of the Allied Occupation of Japan. He was also a key figure in arranging the arrival of these forces prior to the surrender ceremony in Tokyo Bay on September 2, 1945. Here, as we observe the 80th anniversary of the end of the war, I will introduce some early episodes from Eichelberger's diary. In his own words, Eichelberger takes us from the day Japan accepted the Potsdam Declaration to the surrender ceremony, two and a half weeks later. Second of three parts Follow the series, General Eichelberger's Diary This installment was written from Okinawa. Rather than include the full entry for each day, I simply selected the most relevant parts. Similarly, not every day is included. Instead, I focused on the daily entries I felt were the most interesting or insightful. Excerpts follow. …Landed at Kadena strip at 1000...I first went to visit Generao [Joseph W] Stilwell at 10th Army headquarters. After that we went to the Ryukyus Guest House which is run by the Island Command and consists of a series of Quonset huts made up into quarters for visitors… Later a brief conference was held with General [Joseph M] Swing of the 11th Airborne and [Commanding] General William O] Ryan [Pacific Division,] Air Transport Command present. The purpose of this meeting was to discuss with the 5th Air Force their belief that it was impossible to unload C-54s at the rate claimed by 11th Airborne. Since General [Ennis C] Whitehead [of the 5th Air Force] withdrew from his position before the time of the meeting he was not present. General Ryan explained to me the difficulties he has been caused by the 5th Air Force who have been utilizing the ATC C-54s as cargo trucks to move their headquarters from Manila to Okinawa. It was decided that a memo would be issued to General Whitehead calling to his attention the fact that Blacklist [the name of the operation to occupy Japan proper and Korea after surrender or collapse] makes no provision whatever for the introduction of fighter cover into the Tokyo area and that [Chief of Staff to General Douglas MacArthur] General [Richard K] Sutherland stated to me that General [George C] Kenney [Commanding General, Far East Air Forces] had been instructed to conform strictly to the Blacklist Plan. It is thought that such a memo will cause General Whitehead to forego his apparent idea of taking the 5th Air Force in on Y-Day in toto..... A news announcement heard in the evening indicated that a 48-hour delay would be encountered in Y-Day because of bad weather in the Tokyo area… August 26, 1945 (Sunday) Last night's radio announcement was confirmed — the operation will be delayed 48 hours, bad weather being the reason….. Received the press in the lounge of the Ryukyus Guest House at 0830, with an attendance of about 40, including such old friends Frank Robertson [International News Service], Carl Mydans [ Life ], Clark Lee [International News Service], and Frank Filan [Associated Press]. I spent the conference by first requesting that I not be quoted, then briefing the correspondents rather thoroughly on the plan and the subsequent expansions from the initial airhead. Many questions were asked and answered concerning treatment of war criminals, establishment of military government, and the relationship between our forces and the Japanese Government. The only complaint registered by the correspondents was the fact that no newsmen are permitted to go in with the scouting party who will land at Atsugi two days before the 11th Airborne. I explained to them that this was a matter over which we have no jurisdiction. The meeting broke up at about 1000... At about 1115, visited General Swing's headquarters for lunch, following which I inspected one battalion of the 11th Airborne and visited throughout the 11th Airborne area…Prepared press statement for release on landing in Japan and dispatched to GHQ in evening. General Robert L Eichelberger consults with troops of the United States Eighth Army. (Eichelberger story, screenshot, National Archives) …A staff meeting was held at the advance [Command Post] of the Eighth Army during which the plan of handling the airborne group at Atsugi was discussed. Roughly, the plan assumes the availability of Japanese truck transportation. If this is available the billeting group will arrive in the first plane and will contact…the advance party. They will then proceed with guides and under guard to the Fujisawa-Kamakura district. A relay point will be established, probably at Fujisawa, and part of the billeting party will remain there. The remainder will go into the billeting area to select sites for General MacArthur, General Eichelberger, and General Sutherland. A rallying point will be established at Atsugi Field and each plane carrying Eighth Army personnel will be contacted as it arrives and the rallying point identified to them. Guides will then work from the rallying point to the relaying point at Fujisawa and distribution and assignment made in that way. If truck transportation is not available the entire group of GHQ [General Headquarters], FEAF [Far East Air Forces], and 8/A [Eighth Army] will set up in the vicinity of the airfield until such transportation is made available by the arrival of the 1st Cavalry Division on l September. During the day an urgent radio was received advising that the operation will not be delayed because of the delay of the peace proceedings. This could be interpreted as an answer to the Japanese refusal to provide truck transportation. It means substantially that "occupation forces" have been landed prior to the final surrender, in contravention to the agreement made at Manila between the Allies and the Japanese envoys. The Japanese have been informed of this intention... …Was interviewed by two representatives of "Yank" magazine between 0800 and 0900. Left at 0930 for a 3-hour tour of the battle areas on Okinawa, returning to my quarters at noontime for lunch. On arriving back from the Okinawa battlefields I had an early lunch and then rested most of the afternoon. At 1600 I visited…the 27th Station Hospital where I spent about an hour. On returning I received my dinner guests consisting of General Stilwell and his Chief of Staff, General [Frank D] Merrill… …There was a meeting held in the lounge at 0830 at which Generals, Swing, Whitehead and [George W] Griner [of the 27th Division], and various staff members were present. General Swing had arrived previously with the complaint that information had reached him to the effect that General MacArthur's arrival time [at Atsugi] would be 1000 on the 30th. This would preclude his having more than a battalion on the ground when the B C arrived. This matter was threshed out at the meeting and it was decided to let it go. Later in the day it developed that General MacArthur would not arrive until 1400 which helped the situation somewhat. Throughout this meeting it was apparent that General Whitehead clearly realized that he controlled the air movement and intended to do so. The meeting finally broke up at 1000 and after that I had a long talk with Russell Brines and at 1100 with Bill Dunn of NBC.… I went to Yontan airstrip where we met General MacArthur on his arrival at 1345… During the day word was received that the advance party had been given fine treatment by the Japanese, that the airstrip was in good condition and was well guarded by a battalion of Japanese marines armed only with nightsticks. The Japanese have recommended that the Hayama area not be used for billets and that search be made in the Yokohama district for these. However a survey of the Hayama-Kamakura-Fujisawa district was directed and [the advance team] will have a report when we arrive at Atsugi.... Various members of the GHQ staff kept arriving all day and the dining room was full for the evening meal. The following day, Eichelberger and the group departed Okinawa for Atsugi. On the eve of Okinawa Memorial Day, June 23, remembrances included a fire lighting ceremony in Itoman City on Okinawa Island (©Sankei by Kotaro Hikono) Continues in Part 3 on the Occupation of Japan from General Eichelberger's Diary Reviewed by: Robert D Eldridge, PhD Dr Eldridge is a former political advisor to the US Marine Corps in Japan and author of numerous books on Japanese political and diplomatic history.
