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Indian Express
6 days ago
- Climate
- Indian Express
Uttarkashi Cloudburst: What UPSC aspirants must-know for Prelims and Mains
UPSC Issue at a Glance is an initiative by UPSC Essentials aimed at streamlining your UPSC Current Affairs preparation for the prelims and mains examinations by focusing on issues making headlines. Every Thursday, cover a new topic in a lucid way. This week, we explain to you the Cloudbursts from a broader perspective. Let's get started. If you missed the previous UPSC Issue at a Glance | Revisiting Chola dynasty and Rajendra I's achievements: Insights into governance, society, architecture, and more from the Indian Express, read it here. On Tuesday (August 5), a sudden flash flood caused by a cloudburst in the Kheer Ganga river catchment area swept away houses, shops and roads, leaving a trail of destruction. Two cloudburst incidents were reported, one in Dharali and another in the Sukhi Top area, resulting in widespread destruction. Dharali bore the brunt of the damage. This latest incident adds to a growing list of extreme weather events that have struck the hill state in recent years, particularly during the monsoon. In this context, knowing about the cloudburst from a broader perspective becomes essential. (Relevance: UPSC Syllabus General Studies-I, II: Geography, Disaster Management. In 2022, UPSC has asked a question: Explain the mechanism and occurrence of cloudbursts in the context of the Indian subcontinent. Discuss two recent examples. Questions related to climate events and climate-related reports have been UPSC favourites. In this regard, having a comprehensive understanding of this topic is important from the exam perspective.) A cloudburst is a localised but intense rainfall activity. It is a short-term extreme precipitation that takes place over a small area; it is not, as is sometimes understood, the breaking open of a cloud resulting in the release of huge amounts of water. Cloudbursts have a very specific definition. The India Meteorological Department (IMD) defines cloudburst as unexpected precipitation exceeding 100mm (or 10 cm) per hour over a geographical region of approximately 20 to 30 square km. Significant amounts of rainfall such as this can result in floods. Basically, all instances of cloudbursts involve heavy rain in a short period, but all instances of heavy rain in a short period are not cloudbursts if they do not fit this criterion. Cloudbursts are classified as an extreme weather event because the frequency of cloudbursts has increased due to global warming across the world. Extreme precipitation events are increasing in frequency as global temperatures rise, a trend that experts think may be contributing to an increase in cloudbursts. As Amitabh Sinha of The Indian Express explains – 'There is a paucity of past data on cloudbursts; in addition, since only some of them get counted – only those that result in death and destruction – there is a problem of accuracy as well. But what is very clear is that events of extreme precipitation have been on the rise in the last few decades due to global warming; it is expected, keeping in mind that trend, that cloudburst events might be on the increase as well.' The India Meteorological Department forecasts rainfall events well in advance, but it does not predict the quantum of rainfall — in fact, no meteorological agency does. The forecasts can be about light, heavy, or very heavy rainfall, but weather scientists do not have the capability to predict exactly how much rain is likely to fall at any given place. Additionally, the forecasts are for a relatively large geographical area, usually a region, a state, a meteorological sub-division, or at best a district. As they zoom in over smaller areas, the forecasts get more and more uncertain. Theoretically, it is not impossible to forecast rainfall over a very small area as well, but it requires a very dense network of weather instruments, and computing capabilities that seem unfeasible with current technologies. As a result, specific cloudburst events cannot be forecast. No forecast ever mentions a possibility of a cloudburst. But there are warnings for heavy to very heavy rainfall events, and these are routinely forecast four to five days in advance. Possibility of extremely heavy rainfall, which could result in cloudburst kind of situations, are forecast six to 12 hours in advance. The rainfall itself does not result in the death of people, though sometimes, the raindrops are big enough to hurt people in a sustained downpour. It is the consequences of such heavy rain, especially in the hilly terrain, that causes death and destruction. Landslides, flash floods, houses and establishments getting swept away and cave-ins lead to the deaths. GLOFs are disaster events caused by the abrupt discharge of water from glacial lakes — large bodies of water that sit in front of, on top of, or beneath a melting glacier. GLOFs can unleash large volumes of water, sediment, and debris downstream with formidable force and velocity. The floodwaters can submerge valleys, obliterate infrastructure such as roads, bridges, and buildings, and result in significant loss of life and livelihoods. According to government data from a project by the Assam State Disaster Management Authority, India is the worst flood-affected country in the world after Bangladesh and accounts for one-fifth of the global death count due to floods. Cloudbursts do happen in plains, but there is a greater probability of them occurring in mountainous zones, mainly because of three main factors: first, the wind pattern; second, the height of the mountains; and third, the level of moisture and humidity in the air. Cloudbursts are more common in hilly areas because of a phenomenon called 'orographic lift', which basically means warm air rising up the side of a mountain. As warm air 'climbs' a mountain, it expands because of the low pressure at higher altitudes. The expanding air cools, releasing the moisture it was holding as rain. However, in many cases, as more and more warm air keeps rising, it prevents that rain till a large amount of rain builds up and bursts out in a massive shower all at once—resulting in a cloudburst. In the mountains, the formation of low-pressure areas at the top attracts clouds with significant force, intensifying the buildup. Additionally, when air coming from the opposite direction collides with the mountain, it can result in a heavy downpour. This is why the height of the mountain matters in this scenario. The air cannot penetrate the mountain. In hilly areas, sometimes saturated clouds ready to condense into rain cannot produce rain due to the upward movement of the very warm current of air. Instead of falling downwards, raindrops are carried upwards by the air current. New drops are formed, and existing raindrops increase in size. After a point, the raindrops become too heavy for the cloud to hold on to, and they fall suddenly and collectively—causing a flash of intense rainfall typical of a cloudburst. 'A flash flood is a flood of short duration with a relatively high peak discharge in which the time interval between the observable causative event and the flood is less than four to six hours'.- World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) According to the study, only 25% of the flash floods that occur in India are directly caused by extreme precipitation. The rest of them are a result of a combination of extreme rainfall and the condition of the soil before precipitation. In India, flash floods are often associated with cloudbursts. As cloudbursts happen in localised areas and they are difficult to capture accurately, the sudden rain released by a cloudburst can quickly overwhelm drainage systems and lead to flash floods and landslides. Frequently, flash floods are accompanied by landslides, which are sudden movements of rock, boulders, earth or debris down a slope. It is common in mountainous terrains, where there are conditions created for it in terms of the soil, rock, geology and slope. Himalayan states further face the challenge of overflowing glacial lakes, formed due to the melting of glaciers, and their numbers have been increasing in the last few years. An alarming increase in extreme weather phenomena — sudden cloudbursts, flash floods, and landslides — that threaten lives, livelihoods, and ecosystems presents the accelerated impacts of climate change. In this context, it becomes essential to take the right measures in the right direction to reduce the risk of future catastrophe. 📍As changing climate has destabilised weather patterns, in order to saving lives and reduce damage during natural disasters effective early warning systems are critical. For the same expanding and modernising weather monitoring infrastructure, especially in the Himalayas and fragile mountain regions, is essential. Establishing more Automatic Weather Stations (AWS) and utilising satellite-based observation systems can provide real-time data critical for early warnings. Anjal Prakash explains it: 'AWS and advanced meteorological models can provide real-time data that forecasts extreme weather events well in advance when fed into predictive algorithms. This will allow authorities to issue timely alerts, evacuate vulnerable populations, and mobilise relief efforts before catastrophe strikes. International examples, such as Nepal's pioneering use of early warning systems for mountain disasters, illustrate how technology can mitigate risks when integrated into a comprehensive disaster preparedness plan.' 📍Integrating ecological solutions into broader infrastructure planning is vital. As Anjal Prakash explains 'Instead of relying solely on grey infrastructure (such as dams and embankments), India must embrace ecological solutions — restoring wetlands, mangroves, and natural sponge zones that absorb floodwaters and reduce runoff. These nature-based solutions are cost-effective, sustainable, and adaptable to changing climate conditions. In the mountains, land-use planning must prioritise the preservation of forests and natural buffers that minimise landslides and stabilise slopes. Reforestation and afforestation programs should be expanded, especially in areas prone to erosion. These measures increase the resilience of local ecosystems and communities, helping them withstand climate change shocks.' 📍Climate change adaptation must be embedded within policy frameworks. This involves mainstreaming climate resilience into urban and rural planning, allocating dedicated funds for climate risk assessments, investing in resilient infrastructure, and empowering local communities with knowledge and resources. 📍Community-based disaster management should also be prioritised, particularly in vulnerable rural and hill areas. As residents of particular areas often possess valuable traditional knowledge about weather patterns and natural warning signs, which can be integrated into official early warning systems for more effective responses. Furthermore, strengthening climate resilience through collaboration and innovation is the need of the hour. As climate change is a systemic challenge, it requires coordinated action at all local, national, and international levels; thus, investing in research, fostering innovation in climate resilience technologies, and partnering with regional neighbours can bolster adaptive capacity across the Himalayas and beyond. Prelims (1) Which of the following statements with regard to cloudburst is/are correct? (UPSC CDS 2017) 1. It is defined as sudden localized very heavy downpour with cloud thunder and lightning. 2. It mostly occurs in the hilly areas. 3. It results into very high intensity of rainfall, i.e., 250 mm-300 mm in a couple of hours. 4. It occurs only during the daytime. Select the correct answer using the code given below. (a) 1, 2, and 3 (b) 1, 3, and 4 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 2 only (2) With reference to the glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs), consider the following statements: 1. These are sudden and catastrophic floods caused by the failure of natural dams, usually formed by glacial moraines or ice. 2. Thawing of permafrost decreases the risk of GLOFs. 3. Melting of glaciers increases the risk of GLOFs. How many of the statements given above are correct? (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None (3) With reference to the Cloudbursts, consider the following statements: 1. Cloudbursts are short-lived extreme weather events in which heavy rainfall occurs over very small areas. 2. They are more common in hilly areas because of a phenomenon called 'orographic lift'. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Mains Discuss the causes and effects of cloudbursts, and suggest measures to prevent and mitigate their devastating impacts. (Sources: Uttarkashi Cloudburst News Live Updates, What are cloudbursts, and why they occur more in places like Amarnath, What are flash floods, What are cloudbursts, Why are cloudburst incidents rising across India?, Uttarkashi Cloudburst: What India should do to avoid further climate catastrophe) Subscribe to our UPSC newsletter. Stay updated with the latest UPSC articles by joining our Telegram channel – Indian Express UPSC Hub, and follow us on Instagram and X. 🚨 Click Here to read the UPSC Essentials magazine for July 2025. Share your views and suggestions in the comment box or at Roshni Yadav is a Deputy Copy Editor with The Indian Express. She is an alumna of the University of Delhi and Jawaharlal Nehru University, where she pursued her graduation and post-graduation in Political Science. She has over five years of work experience in ed-tech and media. At The Indian Express, she writes for the UPSC section. Her interests lie in national and international affairs, governance, economy, and social issues. You can contact her via email: ... Read More
Indian Express
31-07-2025
- Politics
- Indian Express
Revisiting Chola dynasty and Rajendra I's achievements: Insights into governance, society, architecture, and more
UPSC Issue at a Glance is an initiative by UPSC Essentials aimed at streamlining your UPSC Current Affairs preparation for the prelims and mains examinations by focusing on issues making headlines. Every Thursday, cover a new topic in a lucid way. This week, we explain to you the Chola dynasty from a broader perspective. Let's get started. If you missed the previous UPSC Issue at a Glance | Mangroves in focus: Understanding significance, threats and conservation from the Indian Express, read it here. Prime Minister Narendra Modi visited Gangaikonda Cholapuram in Ariyalur district, which was once the Chola capital, on July 27 to unveil a commemorative coin and inaugurate an exhibition on Rajendra Chola's northern conquest. The Union Ministry of Culture also hosted a four-day festival in the town commemorating 1,000 years of Rajendra Chola's maritime expedition to Southeast Asia and the commencement of the construction of the Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple. In this context, let's take a closer look at key aspects of the Chola dynasty and the legacy of Chola emperor Rajendra I. (Relevance: UPSC Syllabus General Studies-I: Indian Heritage and Culture, History , Indian culture will cover the salient aspects of Art Forms, literature and Architecture from ancient to modern times.) The Cholas are considered as one of the longest recorded dynasties in world history. The earliest references to the Cholas date as far back as the third century BCE and appear in the inscriptions of Mauryan emperor Ashoka. However, very little evidence exists about the early Cholas, apart from the early Tamil literature of the third Sangam and the references made about them in an ancient Graeco-Roman periplus written in the early centuries of the Common Era. After a long eclipse, the Chola Empire emerged sometime in the mid-ninth century under King Vijayalaya Chola. The successors of Vijayalaya conquered neighbouring regions, and the kingdom grew in size and power. The Pandyan and the Pallava territories to the south and north were made part of this kingdom. Notably, Rajaraja I, born to King Parantaka II in 947 CE, is considered the most powerful Chola ruler. Records from copper plate inscriptions have revealed that upon his birth, he was named Arulmozhivarman. Upon accession to the throne in 985 CE, he adopted the regnal title 'Rajaraja' or king of kings. At the time he came to power, Rajaraja I had inherited a tiny kingdom centred around the Thanjavur-Tiruchirapalli region that was still recovering from the disasters of the Rashtrakuta invasions. Under the new king, though, imperial expansions of the Cholas took a whole new turn. The doyen of South Indian history, Nilakanta Sastri, has written in his book The Cholas (1955) that the first military achievement of Rajaraja I's reign was the campaign in the Kerala region. Under his rule, the Chola Empire expanded all along the eastern coast, up to Kalinga in the north. The Cholas soon gained the upper hand over the Pandyas, who were another great dynasty in the Tamil region at the time and one of their biggest rivals. Consequently, the Cholas emerged as the primary power in the northern and eastern parts of the Tamil country. Yet another hallmark of the rule of Rajaraja I was the predominance of maritime trade. Over the next 10 years, Rajaraja I established himself as one of the most astute and sharp political leaders to have emerged in South India. He managed to take over all Pandya territories and then moved to Sri Lanka, where he ransacked several Buddhist Viharas and built Shiva temples in their place to establish the reign of the Cholas. Sastri, in his book, mentions that by the end of his rule, the Chola kingdom had grown ' to be an extensive and well-knit empire efficiently organised and administered, rich in resources, possessed of a powerful standing army, well-tried and equal to the greatest enterprises.' The personal abilities of Rajaraja I laid the foundation for the achievements of his son and successor, Rajendra Chola, also known as Rajendra the Great. Rajendra had inherited an extensive empire comprising the whole of present-day Chennai and Andhra Pradesh and parts of Mysuru and Sri Lanka. He had benefited from a well-established, powerful bureaucracy, a strong army, and a flourishing trade system. Sastri in his book noted that 'during the thirty-three years of his reign, Rajendra turned these initial advantages to the best possible use and succeeded in raising the Chola Empire to the position of the most extensive and most respected Hindu state of the time, and one which possessed though perhaps only for a time a not inconsiderable dominion over the Malay Peninsula and the Eastern Archipelago.' The Chola kingdom stretched across present-day Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and parts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. During the Cholas' rise and fall (around the 9th to 12th centuries AD), other powerful dynasties also emerged and declined in the region, such as the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan, who at times defeated the Cholas, and the Chalukyas of the Andhra region, with whom the Cholas frequently engaged in battle. At the peak of their rule in the ninth and tenth centuries, the entire area south of the Tungabhadra River was brought together as a single unit under the Cholas. They were perhaps the only dynasty from Southern India to have moved north, marching into Eastern India, where Rajendra Chola is known to have defeated the Pala king Mahipala of Pataliputra. They were also the first empire with grand commercial and territorial ambitions outside of the Indian subcontinent. The Chola dynasty left many stone inscriptions and copper plate records, which have become key sources for understanding their history in recent decades. Archeometallurgist Sharada Srinivasan in conversation with Adrija Roychowdhury of The Indian Express suggested that, 'There is a profusion of inscriptions that give meticulous details about administration, social life, and material culture… The Brihadeshwara Temple alone that was consecrated in 1010 CE by Rajaraja I has nearly a hundred inscriptions.' Regarding the local administration, the Chola copper plate mentions the following entities involved in executing land grants: Nattar, Brahmadeyakkilavar, Devadana, Palliccanda, Kanimurruttu, Vettapperu-Urkalilar, and Nagarattar. Nattars were the representatives of nadu (locality). The brahmadeyakkilavars were the brahmana donees of brahmadeya (lands given to the brahmanas). Nagarattars comprised the trading community and belonged to the nagaram (settlement of a group of traders). Devadana, palliccanda, kavimurruttu, and Vettaperu have been identified as a tax-free village. As a constituent of administrative structuring the nadu was important, but it incorporated and represented the urs (vellanvagai villages). Thus, in the territorial sphere, nadu comprised vellanvagai villages. Nattars were the important members (landholders) of the nadu (locality). There are very few inscriptions related to the vellanvagai villages. It seems that the ur being the common populace represented the section that was not literate. However, the inscriptional evidence related to Ur, which is found in the temples, is attributed to literate groups. The functions of the ur included: supervision of village lands viz. activities related to sale, purchase and gift. An important prerequisite for becoming a member of the ur was to be a holder of land. Nadu: a locality consisting of many settlements, in early medieval south India Nagaram: market or commercial centre in early medieval south Induia Nagarattar: the corporate organization of the nagaram. Nattar: leading men of the nadu in early medieval south India Mandapika: a local entre of exchange, in between small periodic markets and larger trade entres. Various kinds of taxes existed in the Chola dynasty. NCERT textbook mentions, 'The inscriptions of the Cholas who ruled in Tamil Nadu refer to more than 400 terms for different kinds of taxes. The most frequently mentioned tax is vetti, taken not in cash but in the form of forced labour, and kadamai, or land revenue. There were also taxes on thatching the house, the use of a ladder to climb palm trees, a cess on succession to family property, etc.' Alongside this complex taxation system, temples played a crucial role in the Chola economy and society, acting as hubs that supported both religious and everyday life. Temples were the nuclei of settlements which grew around them. These were centres of craft production. Temples were also endowed with land by rulers as well as by others. The produce of this land went into maintaining all the specialists who worked at the temple and very often lived near it – priests, garland makers, cooks, sweepers, musicians, dancers, etc. In other words, temples were not only places of worship; they were the centres of economic, social and cultural life. While temples anchored the Chola economy and society on land, their naval strength extended their influence far beyond the subcontinent. Their naval might, allowed them to go as far as Malaysia and the Sumatra islands of Indonesia in their conquests. While the extent of this domination is disputed, the Cholas had strong ties with merchant groups and this allowed them to undertake impressive naval expeditions, historian Anirudh Kanisetti told The Indian Express. Maintaining a strong army and naval resources made sense for the Cholas, because, 'The period from 9th to 10th century was a violent time, where kingdoms would go to war with each other frequently,' he added. Chola's naval power can also be seen in the invasion of Anuradhapura in 993 CE by them. 'Anuradhapura, a Ceylonese political and religious capital that flourished for 1,300 years, was abandoned after an invasion in 993 CE. Hidden away in dense jungle for many years, the splendid site, with its palaces, monasteries and monuments, is now accessible once again,' the UNESCO website says. Notably, Anuradhapura is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Chola art and architecture make it one of the most prominent and culturally rich dynasties in Indian history. Archaeometallurgist Sharada Srinivasan in conversation with the Adrija Roychowdhury of The Indian Express suggests that in 'terms of the scale of accomplishments in art and architecture and the wealth of writing and epigraphic records, the Cholas would come across as one of the richest dynasties in South Indian history.' The large volume of unique art and architectural feats left behind by Cholas well represents the wealth and prominence attained by them. A number of stone shrines associated with the Chola dynasty stand in the Kaveri basin, between the historical regions of Tondaimandalam and Madurai. Their territory is widely recognised as Cōl̥amaṇḍalam, 'the land of the Cholas'. From the 10th century onward, the Cholas prominently started making structural temples. A standard Chola temple was configured along an east-west axis, consisting of an entry hall (mukhamaṇḍapa), a pillared hall (ardhamaṇḍapa), a vestibule (antarāl̥a), and a sanctum (garbhagṛha) sheltered by a Tamil Draviḍa–style superstructure. Sculptures in stone and bronze, and murals adorned the exteriors and interiors of the Chola temples. However, they lacked the rhythm and flexibility of the early corpus, partly because of their large dimension. The sculptural remains in various media were not only aesthetic and religious in nature but also carried strong political connotations. As Devdutt Pattanaik writes in The Indian Express, 'Around the 10th Century Chola period, the bronze Natarajas emerged, mobile sculptures that are made using the lost wax method. Recent research has shown that the copper for these came from Sri Lanka which is possibly why the Cholas constantly fought with Sri Lanka formerly called Thambapanni, the copper land.' Additionally, the Chola era also saw some notable works in literature. Notable texts, including Periapuranam, Virasoliyam, and Jivaka-chintamani, were produced, alongside significant contributions in grammar and epic poetry. Poets like Kamban, Jayamkondar, and Ottakuttan flourished, and major grammatical works like Nannul were written. Three royal temples – the Tanjore Brihadēśvara, Gangaikoṇḍacōl̥apuram, and Darasuram Airavatēśvara – built between the 11th and 12th centuries CE, are the finest examples of the Cholas' artistic brilliance. These temples were inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site as the 'Great Living Chola Temples' in 1987. These state temples were laid out in a manner that they served as focal points of their capitals. These shrines not only outweigh the earlier shrines in terms of their spatial elaboration, but also in their overwhelming monumentality. Tanjore Brihadēśvara Rājarāja's Brihadēśvara temple at Tanjore of the 11th century CE is constructed on elevated ground encircled by a moat. It consists of a mukhamaṇḍapa (entry hall), an ardhamaṇḍapa (pillared hall), an antarāl̥a (vestibule), a two-levelled shrine with a circumambulatory path, and a fourteen-tiered tower, originally crowned by a gold-plated stupi (finial), and a copper kalaśa. The vimana (shrine plus superstructure) of the Brihadēśvara measures approximately 60 metres, twice the size of its predecessors. The large courtyard also features a Nandi maṇḍapa, two large gopurams (gateways) of three and five storeys, topped by a barrel-vaulted roof (śālā), the now absent brick palace of Rājarāja – which was once connected to the main temple on the north – and the allied shrine of Candēśvara. In its transition from the Pallava tradition, where gopurams served as an entrance to the temple complex, the Brihadēśvara gopurams began reflecting the aesthetics of the shrine and eventually surpassed them in size. The Brihadēśvara temple is also called Rājarājēśvaram-uṭaiyar after its patron king. It features 38 depictions of Śiva as Tripurāntaka, the four-armed, bow-wielding cosmic warrior. Of these, 37 are stone sculptures, and one is a mural. These are located on the two-storey walls, base, and gopuram of the temple. Gangaikoṇḍacōl̥apuram The Gangaikonda Cholapuram Shiva temple is often considered the pinnacle of Chola architecture, a triumphant declaration of the might and magnificence of an empire that at its peak stretched from near the banks of the Ganga in north India to parts of Sumatra, Malaysia, and Myanmar. Rājarāja's heir, Rajendra Chola I, who reigned for 30 years (1014 to 1044 AD), built Gangaikonda Cholapuram as his capital after his Army marched right up to the Ganga river, defeating the Pala kingdom of Bengal, and returned victorious. In this new town, he built a grand water tank and a Śiva temple similar in form to Tanjore Brihadēśvara. The tank, Cholagangam, was meant to be a 'Ganga-jalamayam jayasthambham', or 'a liquid pillar of victory'. Notably, where the Tanjore Brihadēśvara temple has a straight, proud tower rising up, the Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple has softer lines and curves, proclaiming more assured power and the luxury of beauty and grace. The temple today is the site of the annual Aadi Thiruvadhirai festival. Aadi is the name of the month, and Thiruvadhirai is a nakshatra (arrangement of stars and planets) linked to Lord Shiva, also believed to be the king's birth star. Traditionally, the festival involves therukoothu or road shows enacting Rajendra I's achievements. The king's statue is offered new silk robes. Darasuram Airavatēśvara The Airavatesvara temple, situated in Darasuram near Kumbakonam, was built in the 12th century CE by Rajaraja Chola II. Architecture, sculptures, paintings, bronze casting – the temple reflects the rich cultural heritage of the Chola dynasty. The temple, dedicated to Lord Shiva, is named after 'Airavat', the majestic white elephant of Lord Indra. Built in the Dravidian architectural style, the maṇḍapa of temple features several Tripurāntaka images on its walls, pillars, and base. This temple, ingeniously conceived in the form of a chariot (rathamaṇḍapa), features the Tripurāntaka imagery and myth. The entire temple complex is filled with rich carvings and inscriptions that narrate stories from ancient Indian Puranas. Another important part of the temple is the musical steps. These 7 singing steps that lead to the altar are intricately carved and represent seven musical notes. Prime Minister Narendra Modi on July 27 unveiled a commemorative coin and inaugurated an exhibition on Rajendra Chola's northern conquest. Rajendra I, the maritime monarch of the Chola dynasty, inherited a powerful kingdom from his father Rajaraja I and expansion of the Chola empire continued under him. To commemorate his successful northern expedition, Rajendra Chola, also known as Rajendra the Great or Gangaikonda Chola (the Chola who conquered Ganga), established Gangaikonda Cholapuram and ceremonially poured Ganges water brought back by his army into a vast man-made reservoir known as the Cholagangam tank, locally referred to as Ponneri. After establishing his dominance within India, Rajendra Chola I then led several successful maritime campaigns, extending the boundaries of his empire and the reputation of his dynasty as one of the foremost Naval powers of India. He has campaigns from the Ganga to Suvarnadwipa (an ancient term for islands in Southeast Asia, including Java and Sumatra) that turned the Cholas into a pan-Asian maritime empire. Arun Janardhanan of The Indian Express explains Rajendra I's naval expedition: 'In 1025 CE, he launched a naval expedition against the Srivijaya empire, targeting present-day Malaysia, Indonesia, and Thailand to assert trade dominance over the Malacca Strait. As historian Hermann Kulke has observed in Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa, the campaign was not a sporadic act of aggression but a deliberate assertion of maritime dominance and prestige.' Rajendra was also one of the only Indian monarchs to conquer territory outside the Indian subcontinent. In 1025 CE, he sent a naval expedition to Indochina, the Malay Peninsula and Indonesia. His expansion to Southeast Asia was crucial in establishing trade and cultural links with the region. Hence, influence of the Cholas can be seen in language and society of large parts of Southeast Asia as well. The deification of kings in Cambodia and Thailand as incarnations of Brahmanical Gods, for instance, is a most evident imprint of the Cholas. Prelims 1. Which Chola King returned with the water of the Ganga to sanctify and commemorate his victory at a new capital in his homeland, called Gangaikondacholapuram, after his successful campaign in the north? (a) Rajaraja I (b) Rajaraja II (c) Rajendra I (d) Rajendra II 2. Which of the following parts of a temple structure is not correctly matched? (a) entry hall : mukhamaṇḍapa (b) pillared hall : ardhamaṇḍapa (c) vestibule : gopuram (d) sanctum : garbhagṛha 3. Which of the following temples of South India is known as Dakshina Meru? (a) Kailasanathar Temple at Kanchipuram (b) Airavatesvara temple at Tanjavur (c) Brihadisvara temple at Gangaikondacholapuram (d) Brihadisvara temple at Tanjavur Mains Chola architecture represents a high watermark in the evolution of temple architecture. Discuss. (UPSC CSE 2013) (Sources: PM Modi at Gangaikonda Cholapuram, How successful were the Cholas as empire builders, Ponniyin Selvan:1 puts focus on Cholas: what happened during their rule?, Why Chola architecture represents a high watermark in the evolution of temple, NCERT, . Rajaraja I and Rajendra Chola, Art and Culture with Devdutt Pattanaik | What sculptures tell us about Indian culture) Subscribe to our UPSC newsletter. Stay updated with the latest UPSC articles by joining our Telegram channel – Indian Express UPSC Hub, and follow us on Instagram and X. 🚨 Click Here to read the UPSC Essentials magazine for July 2025. Share your views and suggestions in the comment box or at Roshni Yadav is a Deputy Copy Editor with The Indian Express. She is an alumna of the University of Delhi and Jawaharlal Nehru University, where she pursued her graduation and post-graduation in Political Science. She has over five years of work experience in ed-tech and media. At The Indian Express, she writes for the UPSC section. Her interests lie in national and international affairs, governance, economy, and social issues. You can contact her via email: ... Read More
Indian Express
24-07-2025
- Science
- Indian Express
Mangroves in focus: Understanding significance, threats and conservation
UPSC Issue at a Glance is an initiative by UPSC Essentials aimed at streamlining your UPSC Current Affairs preparation for the prelims and mains examinations by focusing on issues making headlines. Every Thursday, cover a new topic in a lucid way. This week, we explain to you the mangroves from a broader perspective. Let's get started. If you missed the previous UPSC Issue at a Glance | India's Cybercrime Challenge : Rise and Response from the Indian Express, read it here. Every year, July 26 is celebrated as the International Day for the Conservation of the Mangrove Ecosystem. It was adopted during the 38th session of the general conference of UNESCO held in 2015 and is an important step towards spreading awareness about mangroves and their conservation. In this context, here is a quick look at mangrove ecosystems – from their significance to threats and conservation measures. (Relevance: UPSC Syllabus General Studies-II, III: Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment, Government policies and interventions for development. UPSC has previously asked questions on mangroves not only in prelims but also in Mains, thus covering this topic from a broader perspective becomes essential.) Mangroves are salt-tolerant trees and shrubs typical of estuarine and intertidal regions, meaning they grow in areas where freshwater and saltwater meet. Mangroves typically have aerial, breathing roots and waxy, succulent leaves, and are flowering plants. They thrive in high-rainfall areas (1,000–3,000 mm) with temperatures ranging from 26°C to 35°C. The unique characteristic of mangroves is the way their seeds/propagules germinate. The seeds actually germinate on the tree itself, and then fall of from the tree into the water, taking root only when encumbered by mud and sediment. This is very unique adaptation in the mangroves that helps them perpetuate in the harsh saline conditions. This phenomenon is scientifically termed vivipary. Red mangrove, avicennia marina, grey mangrove, rhizophora etc., are some common mangrove trees. Abundant in swampy and marshy areas, mangroves represent a littoral forest ecosystem, which means they thrive in saline or brackish waters in coastal regions. Mangroves in India Mangroves are distributed in 123 nations and territories mostly in the tropics and subtropics. As per the Indian State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2023, India's mangrove cover is around 4,992 sq. km, constituting 0.15% of the country's total geographical area. West Bengal has the largest mangrove cover in India. Gujarat comes second with an estimated area of 1,177 sq km, with mangrove forests largely located in Gulf of Kutch and Gulf of Khambhat. With an estimated mangrove forests spread over 794 sq km, Kutch district has the largest mangrove area in Gujarat. Mangrove ecosystems are also found in Andhra Pradesh (Godavari-Krishna delta), Kerala, and the Andaman Islands. The Sundarbans (spread across India and Bangladesh) is the largest contiguous mangrove forest in the world, while Bhitarkanika is the second largest in India. The Sundarbans National Park is a UNESCO world heritage site and is famous for the Royal Bengal tigers, Gangetic dolphins, and other flora and fauna. Bhitarkanika is renowned for its vulnerable Olive Ridley turtles and salt-water crocodiles. 'Mangroves are rare, spectacular and prolific ecosystems on the boundary between land and sea. These extra ordinary ecosystems contribute to the wellbeing, food security, and protection of coastal communities worldwide.'- UNESCO Mangrove are of profound ecological and economic significance, benefiting in multiple ways, such as: 1. Natural coastal defense (Bio-shields): Mangroves act as natural coastal guards and protectors. They are also referred to as 'bio-shields' as they mitigate the impact of strong waves and winds while guarding against coastal and soil erosion, primarily because of their roots. 2. Carbon sinks: Mangroves act as essential carbon sinks (absorb more carbon than they release) and are helpful in mitigating global warming. According to UNESCO, 'One hectare of mangrove can store 3,754 tons of carbon it's the equivalent of taking 2,650+ cars off the road for one year.' Mangrove trees absorb carbon from the atmosphere and deposit it in the soil, where the carbon can remain for thousands of years if undisturbed. Mangroves behave differently from other trees that also remove CO2 as part of the photosynthesis process — the latter store the carbon in their branches and roots but, when the tree dies, the carbon is released back into the air. Mangroves, on the other hand, transfer the carbon to the soil, where it stays unaffected even if the tree is destroyed. 3. Economical Significance: Since mangroves are found in coastal regions, they are also a source of livelihood for coastal communities. Fisherwomen and farmers depend on the wide variety of ecological wealth mangroves offer. Fish farming, non-timber forest produce, honey collection, and boating are some local occupations on which locals depend. Additionally, different varieties of fish, shrimps, prawns, and plants thrive in mangrove forests supporting the blue economy. 4. Supports biodiversity: These mangroves are rich in biodiversity. They support complex communities, where thousands of other species interact. They provide a valuable nursery habitat for fish and crustaceans; a food source for monkeys, deer, birds, even kangaroos; and a source of nectar for honeybees. More than half of the world's mangrove ecosystems are at risk of collapse, with nearly one in five facing severe risk, according to the findings of the first global mangrove assessment. According to UNESCO, despite the multifaceted significance of Mangroves, they are disappearing three to five times faster than overall global forest losses, with serious ecological and socio-economic impacts. Current estimates indicate that mangrove coverage has been divided by two in the past 40 years. Deforestation, pollution and dam construction pose a serious threat to mangroves, but the risk to these ecosystems is increasing due to sea-level rise and the increased frequency of severe storms due to climate change. Global warming and sea-level rise may lead to increased submergence of the mangroves and studies have shown that mangroves are pushed towards land due to sea-level rise over the period of time. However, landward movement is limited by human settlements and other industrial activities. Therefore, mangroves may be squeezed to a level where their conservation and restoration may not be possible. Notably, climate change threatens one-third (33 per cent) of the mangrove ecosystems, according to the study done using the International Union for Conservation of Nature's (IUCN) Red List of Ecosystems — a global standard for measuring the health of ecosystems. The assessment finds that maintaining mangrove ecosystems across the globe will be key for mitigating the impacts of climate change, with healthy mangroves able to better cope with sea level rise and offering inland protection from the impacts of hurricanes, typhoons and cyclones. Mangroves face immense threats from rampant urbanisation, depletion of coastal land systems because of agriculture, shrimp farming, and other dangers from rising sea temperatures. Unsustainable tourism practices also affect these vulnerable ecosystems. However, increasingly, the protection of mangroves as a strategy for climate change-oriented action is gaining popularity. Some global efforts include Mangroves for the Future (MFF) and Mangroves Alliance for Climate. In India, initiatives and schemes such as the MISHTI (Mangrove Initiative for Shoreline Habitats & Tangible Incomes), Amrit Dharohar, West Bengal's Sustainable Aquaculture In Mangrove Ecosystem (SAIME) and the Andhra Pradesh's Vana Samrakshana Samitis, and the Green Tamil Nadu Mission are some examples. At the 27th Session of Conference of Parties (COP27, held in Egypt last year, the Mangrove Alliance for Climate (MAC) was launched to unite countries, including India, 'to scale up, accelerate conservation, restoration and growing plantation efforts of mangrove ecosystems for the benefit of communities globally, and recognise the importance of these ecosystems for climate change mitigation and adaption'. MFF is a unique partner-led initiative to promote investment in coastal ecosystem conservation for sustainable development. Co-chaired by IUCN and UNDP, MFF provides a platform for collaboration among the many different agencies, sectors and countries which are addressing challenges to coastal ecosystem and livelihood issues. It initially focused on the countries that were worst affected by the tsunami -- India, Indonesia, Maldives, Seychelles, Sri Lanka and Thailand. More recently it has expanded to include Bangladesh, Cambodia, Myanmar, Pakistan and Vietnam. Mangroves are the flagship of the initiative, but MFF is inclusive of all types of coastal ecosystems, such as coral reefs, estuaries, lagoons, sandy beaches, seagrasses and wetlands. 'Mangrove Initiative for Shoreline Habitats & Tangible Incomes (MISHTI)' was announced in the Union Budget 2023-24 to promote and conserve mangroves as unique, natural eco-system having very high biological productivity and carbon sequestration potential, besides working as a bio shield. It was launched by Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change on 5th June 2023. However, beyond these initiatives, it is also required to create awareness, strengthen legal frameworks, increase collaborations between various countries, incorporate best practices from each other, and conduct scientific studies with a focus on understanding mangrove mechanisms to adapt to changing climatic regimes, especially fluctuating salinity of the sea, the decline in freshwater to the estuaries, and rising global temperatures. It is essential to identify the regional conservation bottlenecks to devise better strategies for their conservation. A common global strategy with set goals must be devised to save our mangroves for a better and sustainable future. Prelims (1) Which one of the following regions of India has a combination of mangrove forest, evergreen forest and deciduous forest? (UPSC CSE 2015) (a) North Coastal Andhra Pradesh (b) South-West Bengal (c) Southern Saurashtra (d) Andaman and Nicobar Islands (2) With reference to the mangroves, consider the following statements: 1. They act as a buffer between the ocean and the land. 2. They prevent erosion by absorbing wave action. 3. Mangroves require carbon dioxide for their roots to survive. 4. Pichavaram Mangrove Forest is located in West Bengal. How many of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three (d) All four (3) With reference to the Sundarbans mangrove forest, consider the following statements: 1. It lies on the delta of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers on the Bay of Bengal. 2. It is a World Heritage site which was inscribed in 1987. 3. It lies on the India-Myanmar border. 4. It is the world's second-largest contiguous mangrove forest. How many of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three (d) All four Mains Discuss the causes of depletion of mangroves and explain their importance in maintaining coastal ecology. (UPSC CSE 2019) (Sources: Mangroves: Ecology, economy, and a boat ride in Pichavaram, How mothers built a forest in world's largest delta, What happens if all mangroves are destroyed?, Subscribe to our UPSC newsletter. Stay updated with the latest UPSC articles by joining our Telegram channel – Indian Express UPSC Hub, and follow us on Instagram and X. 🚨 Click Here to read the UPSC Essentials magazine for July 2025. Share your views and suggestions in the comment box or at Roshni Yadav is a Deputy Copy Editor with The Indian Express. She is an alumna of the University of Delhi and Jawaharlal Nehru University, where she pursued her graduation and post-graduation in Political Science. She has over five years of work experience in ed-tech and media. At The Indian Express, she writes for the UPSC section. Her interests lie in national and international affairs, governance, economy, and social issues. You can contact her via email: ... Read More
Indian Express
17-07-2025
- Indian Express
India's Cybercrime Challenge : Rise and Response
UPSC Issue at a Glance is an initiative by UPSC Essentials aimed at streamlining your UPSC Current Affairs preparation for the prelims and mains examinations by focusing on issues making headlines. Every Thursday, cover a new topic in a lucid way. This week, we explain to you the cybercrime challenge for India from a broader perspective. Let's get started. If you missed the previous UPSC Issue at a Glance | Genetically Modified (GM) Crops and India: 4 essential questions to understand the debate from the Indian Express, read it here. The Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) has estimated that a significant portion of the cyber scams targeting Indians come from Southeast Asia. It attributes over half of the approximately Rs 7,000 crore lost to online scams in the first five months of this year, January to May, to networks operating out of Myanmar, Cambodia, Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand. According to data compiled by the Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C), a unit under MHA, these scams are often run from high-security locations, reportedly controlled by Chinese operators, where trafficked people, including Indians, are forced to work. Given the rising cases of cyber scams and frauds, which presents a big challenge to India on multiple fronts, it becomes essential to cover this UPSC current affairs topic comprehensively by linking it with the static portion of the UPSC syllabus. (Relevance: UPSC Syllabus General Studies-II, III: Government policies and interventions for development in various sectors and issues arising out of their design and implementation. Challenges to internal security through communication networks, basics of cyber security. Cybersecurity is an important topic for the UPSC exam. Mains questions in General Studies III have been asked on various elements of cyber security and India's comprehensive National Cyber Security Strategy.) Recently the government's flagship 'Digital India' programme completed ten years on July 1. In the last decade, India has made transformational changes in the adoption of digital technology. It has emerged as the fastest-growing digital economy. As it continues to expand, it has become a way of life for citizens. But this digital revolution has also produced some challenges not only for policymakers but also for the security apparatus. These challenges come in different forms of cyber crimes. In general cybercrime is defined as 'Any unlawful act where a computer or communication device or computer network is used to commit or facilitate the commission of crime'. Cybercrime encompasses a wide range of malicious activities, including identity theft, financial fraud, hacking, cyberstalking, and the distribution of harmful software, among others. Some of them are explained below: 1. Phishing: It is a common type of cyber-attack that targets individuals through email, text messages, phone calls, and other forms of communication. A phishing attack aims to trick the recipient into falling for the attacker's desired action, such as revealing financial information, system login credentials, or other sensitive information. Fundamentally, these threats exploit human psychology rather than technical vulnerabilities. 2. Ransomware attacks: It is a specific type of malware. It typically locks the system to prevent users from accessing their own system or personal files. Only after receiving ransom demand by the attacker, the access is regranted to the user, without which data is permanently lost or, in some cases, made publicly available. India has witnessed a sharp 55 per cent hike in ransomware incidents, with 98 recorded attacks in 2024. The highest number of such activities was reported in May and October. The latest figures were revealed by the 'Ransomware Trends 2024: Insights for Global Cybersecurity Readiness' report released by CyberPeace, a non-profit organisation for cybersecurity. 3. Whale Phishing: Unlike the typical phishing scams, whale phishing or spear phishing are focused on specific individuals. The difference between whaling and spear phishing is that whaling exclusively targets high-ranking individuals within an organization, while spear phishing usually goes after a category of individuals with a lower profile. 4. Smishing: It is a cyber-attack that targets individuals through SMS or text messages. The term is a combination of 'SMS' and 'phishing'. 5. Vishing (short for voice phishing): It consists of phone calls from fraudsters pretending to be officials, such as bank representatives, trick victims into revealing OTPs or account details. 6. Cyber stalking: It is the use of electronic communication by a person to follow a person, or attempts to contact a person to foster personal interaction repeatedly despite a clear indication of disinterest by such person; or monitors the internet, email or any other form of electronic communication commits the offence of stalking. 7. Identity Theft: Identity theft happens when someone uses your personal information without your permission—such as your, bank account number, and credit card information— to gain financial benefits or commit fraud. Thieves can use your information to access personal accounts, open up new accounts without your permission, make unauthorized transactions, or commit crimes. 8. Ponzi and Investment Schemes: Apps and websites promising unrealistic high returns, often operating without regulatory oversight, lure users into fraudulent schemes. 9. Trojan horse: It is a destructive program that looks as a genuine application. Unlike viruses, Trojan horses do not replicate themselves but they can be just as destructive. Trojans open a backdoor entry to your computer which gives malicious users/programs access to your system, allowing confidential and personal information to be theft. Cyber threats have transformed into sophisticated, AI-powered operations, meticulously designed to exploit human vulnerabilities. Ankita Deshkar of The Indian Express writes, 'Latest attacks are becoming increasingly complex and difficult to detect. These aren't just incremental improvements—they represent a fundamental reimagining of digital threat strategies.' Dr Chiranjiv Roy, global head of data science, machine learning and applied generative AI at lists some common threats: 1. Personalised phishing: AI enables attackers to scrape social media profiles and create highly targeted phishing emails. For instance, a professional in Bengaluru might receive an email mimicking a local job portal, claiming to offer a high-paying job at Infosys. 2. Deepfake technology: AI-generated voices and videos are used in vishing calls to impersonate trusted figures. For example, deepfake voice calls of CEOs have been used to authorise fraudulent financial transfers in Indian companies too. 3. Polymorphic malware: AI-powered phishing campaigns can deploy malware that constantly evolves its code, bypassing traditional antivirus programs. 4. Chatbots for smishing: AI bots mimic human-like interactions in messaging platforms like WhatsApp or Telegram, making fraudulent schemes more believable. During the COVID-19 pandemic, cyber attacks reached new heights. Smishing attacks claiming to offer COVID-19 relief funds were common and led to widespread data theft.' With the rapid digitalisation, exposure to cyber threats and digital risks has increased, which are getting sophisticated day by day. The surge in digital fraud is a matter of concern. Frauds present multiple challenges for the financial system in the form of reputational risk, operational risk, business risk and the erosion of customer confidence with financial stability implications. It also presents a security challenge. In this context, to tackle the cybercrime challenge, first understanding the factors contributing to the surge in cybercrimes in India is essential. One of the primary reasons for the increase in cybercrime cases is the exponential growth in the number of internet users. As more people conduct their financial transactions, social interactions, and professional activities online, the opportunities for cybercriminals to exploit vulnerabilities have multiplied. The sophistication of cyber attacks has also evolved, with criminals employing advanced techniques such as phishing, ransomware, and social engineering to breach security measures. Additionally, the shift to remote work and increased online activities expanded the attack surface for cybercriminals. Many individuals and organisations were unprepared for the rapid digital transition, leaving gaps in their cybersecurity defences that were easily exploited. Another contributing factor is the anonymity and borderless nature of the internet, which allows cybercriminals to operate from any location, making it challenging for law enforcement agencies to track and prosecute offenders. The lack of stringent cybersecurity laws and international cooperation in some regions further complicates efforts to combat cybercrime. India has a comprehensive legal framework to address cybercrimes. The Information Technology Act, 2000 covers offences related to phishing, smishing, and vishing, prescribing fines and imprisonment. The three new criminal laws, namely, the Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita (BNSS), 2023, the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023, and the Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023, repealed the British-era Indian Penal Code, the Code of Criminal Procedure, and the Indian Evidence Act, respectively, also address the evolving digital landscape and the growing threat of cybercrime. Rameesh Kailasam writes, 'The three laws enable the registration of electronic First Information Reports (FIRs) and establish electronic evidence as a primary form of proof. Under the BNSS, 2023, data collection is permitted for criminal identification. Additionally, it stipulates that all trials, inquiries, and proceedings may be conducted in electronic mode. The production of electronic communication devices, likely to contain digital evidence, will be allowed for investigation, inquiry, or trial. The Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023, appears to adapt to the digital age. It classifies electronic records as documents. Under the Indian Evidence Act, electronic records are classified as secondary evidence. However, under the new law, electronic records are categorised as primary evidence. It expands such records to include information stored in semiconductor memory or any communication devices (such as smartphones, and laptops). The new laws facilitate the enhanced use of technology for efficient evidence collection and presentation. It is evident that these amendments to India's legal framework will ease both investigation and the judicial process, particularly for cases related to cybersecurity.' Other initiatives The changing geo-political and economic shifts have also compelled the Indian government to take active steps to evolve in cyberspace. Thus, beyond the legal framework, various other measures have also been taken by the government. 1. Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C): It was officially inaugurated by Home Minister Shri Amit Shah on the 10th of January 2020, to combat Cybercrime in the country and strengthen the overall security apparatus to fight against Cybercrime. In September 2024, four I4C platforms — Cyber Fraud Mitigation Centre (CFMC), the 'Samanvaya' platform, a Cyber Commandos programme and a Suspect Registry — were inaugurated by the Home Minister. The Central Suspect Registry serves as a central-level database with consolidated data on cybercrime suspects from across the country. The National Cybercrime Reporting Portal (NCRP) has been tasked with establishing the Suspect Registry. The CFMC focuses on addressing online financial fraud and scams. It looks to prevent cybercrimes by facilitating cooperation between various stakeholders such as major banks, payment aggregators, telecom companies, Internet Service Providers (ISPs), central agencies, and local police on a single platform. The Samanvaya Platform, also known as the Joint Cybercrime Investigation Facilitation System, is designed as a single repository of data pertaining to cyber crimes. 2. Indian Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In): Under the provisions of section 70B of the Information Technology (IT) Act, 2000, the CERT-In is designated as the national agency for responding to cyber security incidents. The CERT-In plays a vital role in controlling cybersecurity incidents and coordinating incident response activities. It acts as the central agency for incident response, vulnerability handling, and security management in India's cyberspace. 3. Cyber Swachhta Kendra: The Cyber Swachhta Kendra is an initiative that focuses on detecting and removing malicious botnet programs from computers and devices. It provides free tools for malware analysis and helps improve the security of systems and devices. 4. ' domain for banks: To combat the increasing number of digital payment frauds, in February this year, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) announced the introduction of the ' an exclusive internet domain for Indian banks. On 22nd April, the regulator decided to operationalise the '. domain for banks. A domain name is used to find websites. It is considered a symbol of national identity on the global internet. This exclusive internet domain for domestic banks will minimise cyber security threats and will help in strengthening trust in the country's digital banking and payment services. With the migration to the new domain, all banks in the country will have '. as the domain name. Currently, banks are either using '.com' or '. as their domain name, which is more generic. The RBI has given banks time till October 31, 2025 to migrate to '. 5. National Cyber Crime Reporting Portal: It is an initiative of Government of India to facilitate victims/complainants to report cyber crime complaints online. The portal caters all types of cyber crime complaints including complaints pertaining to online Child Pornography (CP), Child Sexual Abuse Material (CSAM) or sexually explicit content such as Rape/Gang Rape (CP/RGR) content and other cyber crimes such as mobile crimes, online and social media crimes, online financial frauds, ransomware, hacking, cryptocurrency crimes and online cyber trafficking. 6. Citizen Financial Cyber Fraud Reporting and Management System (CFCFRMS): It has been developed by the I4C and is operated by respective State/UT which brings together Law Enforcement Agencies of States/UTS, Banks and Financial Intermediaries on a single platform to take immediate action on the complaints regarding financial cyber frauds received through helpline number 1930. 7. New e-Zero FIR: I4C has introduced the new e-Zero FIR initiative to automatically converts cyber financial crime complaints with a cheating value above Rs 10 lakh, registered on the 1930 helpline or the National Cybercrime Reporting Portal (NCRP), into FIRs. 8. Sanchar Saathi: It is a citizen-centric initiative by the Department of Telecommunications (DoT) to empower mobile users and enhance their security. It offers various services, including tracing lost/stolen mobile devices, checking the number of mobile connections in one's name, verifying the genuineness of mobile handsets, and reporting suspicious international calls with Indian numbers. The portal also facilitates reporting of unwanted or fraudulent connections. 9. On 6th December 2024, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) announced that it has created an AI-powered model called which could reduce digital fraud by helping banks deal with the increasing problem of 'mule' bank accounts. It has been developed by the Reserve Bank Innovation Hub. In recent years, the government has also increased the budget allocation to cybersecurity. However, challenges remain. There is a need for effective utilisation, transparency, and accountability in fund allocation. Collaboration between the government, industry, and academia is vital for a robust approach. It is also imperative for individuals, organizations, and governments to prioritize cybersecurity. This includes investing in robust security infrastructure, conducting regular security awareness training, and implementing strict data protection measures. Additionally, fostering international collaboration to share intelligence and best practices is crucial for effectively combating cybercrime on a global scale. Prelims (1) In India, it is legally mandatory for which of the following to report on cyber security incidents? (UPSC CSE 2017) 1. Service providers 2. Data centres 3. Body corporate Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 (2) In India, under cyber insurance for individuals, which of the following benefits are generally covered, in addition to payment for the loss of funds and other benefits? (UPSC CSE 2020) 1. Cost of restoration of the computer system in case of malware disrupting access to one's computer 2. Cost of a new computer if some miscreant wilfully damages it, if proved so 3. Cost of hiring a specialised consultant to minimise the loss in case of cyber extortion 4. Cost of defence in the Court of Law if any third party files a suit Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1, 2 and 4 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (3) The terms 'WannaCry, Petya and EternalBlue' sometimes mentioned in the news recently are related to (UPSC CSE 2018) (a) Exoplanets (b) Cryptocurrency (c) Cyber attacks (d) Mini satellites Mains What are the different elements of cyber security? Keeping in view the challenges in cyber security, examine the extent to which India has successfully developed a comprehensive National Cyber Security Strategy. (UPSC CSE 2022) (Sources: Exclusive: Indians losing Rs 1,000 crore every month to cyber frauds, Knowledge Nugget | '. domain for banks, A look at digital banking scams, FatBoyPanel?, Unmasking digital deception, Knowledge nugget: India stares at a steep cyber crime challenge. Is it prepared?, Subscribe to our UPSC newsletter. Stay updated with the latest UPSC articles by joining our Telegram channel – Indian Express UPSC Hub, and follow us on Instagram and X. 🚨 Click Here to read the UPSC Essentials magazine for June 2025. Share your views and suggestions in the comment box or at Roshni Yadav is a Deputy Copy Editor with The Indian Express. She is an alumna of the University of Delhi and Jawaharlal Nehru University, where she pursued her graduation and post-graduation in Political Science. She has over five years of work experience in ed-tech and media. At The Indian Express, she writes for the UPSC section. Her interests lie in national and international affairs, governance, economy, and social issues. You can contact her via email: ... Read More
Indian Express
10-07-2025
- Politics
- Indian Express
Genetically Modified (GM) Crops and India: 4 essential questions to understand the debate
UPSC Issue at a Glance is an initiative by UPSC Essentials aimed at streamlining your UPSC Current Affairs preparation for the prelims and mains examinations by focusing on issues making headlines. Every Thursday, cover a new topic in a lucid way. This week, we explain to you genetically modified crops from a broader perspective. Let's get started. If you missed the previous UPSC Issue at a Glance | India's literacy drive and its fully literate states— All you need to know for Prelims and Mains from the Indian Express, read it here. Disagreements over sensitive sectors such as agriculture and dairy have added to the uncertainty of an interim trade deal between India and the United States. As US negotiators are turning up the heat, urging India to open its agriculture market to genetically modified (GM) crops, India has been resisting US demands for greater access in the agriculture and dairy sectors and accepting GM imports. In this context, let's know about the GM crops — understanding the underlying technology, their potential benefits, and the broader concerns associated with them. (Relevance: UPSC Syllabus General Studies- II, III: Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India's interests, Effects of liberalisation on the economy, Science and Technology- developments and their applications and effects in everyday life.) Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) involve the modification of the genetic material of the host by the introduction of foreign genetic material. In the case of agriculture, soil bacteria is the best mining source for such genes, which are then inserted into the host genome using genetic engineering. For example, in the case of cotton, the introduction of the genes cry1Ac and cry2Ab mined from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (BT) allows the native cotton plant to generate endotoxins to fight pink bollworm naturally. BT Cotton uses this advantage to help farmers naturally fight pink bollworm, which is the most common pest for cotton farmers. Notably, GMOs is a broader term that includes GM crops as a subset. GM crops are plants used in agriculture whose DNA has been altered to add desired properties. They are usually developed to increase yield, resist pests/herbicides, and withstand extreme weather conditions. Gene modification is different from genetic editing (GE). GM involves the introduction of genes from unrelated species into host plants. 'GM is nothing more than a breeding technique, much like crossing that we've been doing for thousands of years. But it's more sophisticated, so we can make very precise changes very rapidly,' said David Spencer, a phytopathologist and spokesperson for Replanet, an alliance of NGOs advocating for science-based solutions to climate change and the loss of biodiversity. GE, also known as genome editing, on the other hand, entails mere 'editing' of genes naturally present in the host plant, leading to mutation or changes in their DNA sequence. No foreign genes or DNA are incorporated. In simple terms, gene editing is a technique that allows scientists to 'cut' DNA strands and edit genes. The technology enables a simple but remarkably efficient way to 'edit' the genetic codes of organisms, thus opening up the possibility of 'correcting' genetic information to cure diseases, prevent physical deformities, or even produce cosmetic enhancements. There is significant resistance to GM crops in India. Only one GM crop, Bt cotton, is approved for cultivation. No GM food crop is commercially grown, although experimental trials continue. However, imports of GM soybean oil and canola oil are permitted. Ashok Gulati and Ritika Juneja write- 'Approval for Bt brinjal and GM mustard (DMH 11), developed at Delhi University by Deepak Pental's team, remains on hold. These crops cleared in principle by the Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) haven't received full commercial green light. Bt brinjal has been under moratorium since 2009, while GM mustard got conditional environmental release in 2022—but commercialisation has stalled pending further regulatory checks and potentially a Supreme Court ruling.' Regulation of GM crops In India, the introduction of GM crops is a laborious process which involves multiple levels of checks. The GEAC, a high power committee under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, is the regulator for introduction of any GM material and in case of agriculture multiple field trials, data about biosafety and other information is necessary for getting the nod before commercial release of any GM crop. According to the GEAC's An Overview of Genetically Modified Crops – 'Development, cultivation and transboundary movement of GM crops is regulated to ensure the safety of animal health, human health and biodiversity. In India, such regulations are provided in the Rules for Manufacture, Use, Import, Export and Storage of Hazardous Microorganisms (HM) Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells, 1989 under the Environment Protection Act (1986). The rules cover: 📌All activities involving research and development of products containing GMOs including transgenic crops, pharma products, industrial products, food and foodstuffs. 📌Field and clinical trials 📌Deliberate or unintentional release 📌Import, export and manufacture Notably, use of the unapproved GM variant can attract a jail term of 5 years and fine of Rs 1 lakh under the Environmental Protection Act ,1989. After knowing the basics of GM crops, let's now understand the debate surrounding their potential benefits and associated concerns. Across the world, GM crops have been a topic of debate, with many environmentalists opposing them on the grounds of biosafety and incomplete data, but for some experts it is the best science-based method for a sustainable global food system amidst biodiversity loss and a rising population. The conventional plant breeding methods are very time-consuming and often not very accurate. Thus, genetically modified crops offer a novel way to improve yield, build resistances to pests, frost or drought, or add nutrients. For example, in 2002 the government of India allowed Bt cotton in India, and later improved production of cotton was seen. Explaining this, Ashok Gulati and Ritika Juneja write, 'The only crop that is GM in India is cotton. It was Atal Bihari Vajpayee's government in 2002 when this bold decision to allow Bt cotton was taken. Today, more than 90 per cent of India's cotton area is under Bt cotton. The results were dramatic. Cotton production surged from 13.6 million bales in 2002–03 to 39.8 million bales in 2013–14 — a phenomenal 193 per cent growth. Productivity shot up by 87 per cent (from 302 kg/ha to 566 kg/ha), and cultivated area expanded by 56 per cent, with Bt cotton dominating. Farmers' incomes soared, and Gujarat even witnessed an agrarian boom — the state averaged over 8 per cent annual growth in agri GDP. By then, India had become the world's second-largest cotton producer after China and the second-largest exporter after the US, hitting $4.1 billion of net exports during 2011-12.' Crops can also be modified to reduce carbon emissions and boost the sustainability of food production. While widespread, GM crop production uses only about 10% of the land non-GM crop production uses. Fred Schwaller writes, 'Gene editing technology has also helped save crop production from blights. In the late 20th century, the papaya ringspot virus almost wiped out papaya crops in Hawaii, but a local scientist developed a modified papaya that was resistant to the virus. Seeds were distributed to farmers, saving papaya production a decade later.' When GM crops were first developed 30 years ago, uncertainty and concerns about safety were shared by scientists. Environmentalists argue that the long-lasting effect of GM crops is yet to be studied and thus they should not be released commercially. Genetic modification, they say, brings about changes that can be harmful to humans in the long run. Ravi Dutta Mishra of The Indian Express explains, 'a 2013 report by the European Network of Scientists for Social and Environmental Responsibility (ENSSER) emphasised that many studies deeming GM foods safe were industry-funded and that long-term, independent studies were lacking. New Delhi-based think tank GTRI said: 'Environmental studies have shown that widespread use of Bt crops can lead to pest resistance, such as in the pink bollworm, and pose risks to non-target species such as monarch butterflies, as suggested in a 1999 Nature study. Additionally, the overuse of glyphosate with herbicide-tolerant GM crops has led to 'superweeds' and increased herbicide use.' The GTRI said that GM and non-GM crops may intermingle at various stages of the supply chain – during transport, storage or processing. 'Once GM material enters, there is a high risk it could leak into local farming systems or processed food chains, posing risks to food safety, environmental integrity, and India's export reputation – especially in GM-sensitive markets such as the EU,' the think tank warned. It said the import of GM products, like animal feed, could negatively affect India's agricultural exports to the EU which enforces strict GM-labelling rules and faces strong consumer opposition to GM-linked products. Although GM feed is permitted, many European buyers prefer fully GM-free supply chains. India's fragmented agri-logistics and lack of segregation infrastructure increase the likelihood of cross-contamination and trace GM presence in export consignments. This could result in shipment rejections, higher testing costs, and erosion of India's GM-free image, particularly in sectors like rice, tea, honey, spices and organic foods, the GTRI said.' Additionally, GM crops are also criticised due to the overuse of specific herbicides. GM crops are mainly used to produce crops that are herbicide-resistant or produce pesticides. Farmers can then use herbicides on those crops to control weeds more effectively, without the plants themselves dying. This leads to higher yields on less land, and often with less chemicals used overall. However, these crops rely on the use of lab-made chemicals. And although the government regulates them, ethical and safety debates continue. People raise concerns over potential long-term health impacts, impacts on biodiversity and ecosystems, and the increased corporate control over agriculture. Prelims (1) Other than resistance to pests, what are the prospects for which genetically engineered plants have been created? (UPSC CSE 2012) 1. To enable them to withstand drought 2. To increase the nutritive value of the produce 3. To enable them to grow and do photosynthesis in spaceships and space stations 4. To increase their shelf life Select the correct answer using the codes given below: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 and 4 only (c) 1, 2 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (2) Bollgard I and Bollgard II technologies are mentioned in the context of (UPSC CSE 2021) (a) clonal propagation of crop plants (b) developing genetically modified crop plants (c) production of plant growth substances (d) production of biofertilizers (3) What is Cas9 protein that is often mentioned in news? (UPSC CSE 2019) (a) A molecular scissors used in targeted gene editing (b) A biosensor used in the accurate detection of pathogens in patients (c) A gene that makes plants pest-resistant (d) A herbicidal substance synthesized in genetically modified crops Mains How can biotechnology help to improve the living standards of farmers? (UPSC CSE 2019) (Sources: Amid impasse over India deal, Trump says tariff letters for 12 nations signed, GM food, Knowledge Nugget: What to know about gene editing for UPSC as world's first GE rice varieties make headlines, GM seeds: the debate, and a sowing agitation, What's the latest on GMOs and gene-edited foods) Subscribe to our UPSC newsletter. Stay updated with the latest UPSC articles by joining our Telegram channel – Indian Express UPSC Hub, and follow us on Instagram and X. 🚨 Click Here to read the UPSC Essentials magazine for June 2025. Share your views and suggestions in the comment box or at Roshni Yadav is a Deputy Copy Editor with The Indian Express. She is an alumna of the University of Delhi and Jawaharlal Nehru University, where she pursued her graduation and post-graduation in Political Science. She has over five years of work experience in ed-tech and media. At The Indian Express, she writes for the UPSC section. Her interests lie in national and international affairs, governance, economy, and social issues. You can contact her via email: ... Read More
