Measles reported for the first time in Doña Ana County
New Mexico health officials reported five new measles cases in children Tuesday, including the first reported infection in Southern New Mexico's most populous county: Doña Ana, which may have exposed people in a preschool and several Memorial Medical Center locations.
The remaining four cases were in Lea County, where the majority of the outbreak has spread in New Mexico, bringing the measles total to 63 cases. Five of those cases were serious enough to warrant hospitalization.
The New Mexico Department of Health officials recommended Tuesday that parents seek one dose of the measles, mumps rubella vaccine for infants aged 6-11 months living in Doña Ana County, or who will be traveling to either Doña Ana or Lea counties.
'Given how contagious measles is, we expected it to find its way from El Paso County in Texas to neighboring Doña Ana County,' said NMDOH Chief Medical Officer Dr. Miranda Durham in a written statement. 'No matter where you live in New Mexico, make sure you and your family are up to date with your vaccinations.'
Health officials said measles exposure may have occurred in the past two weeks at the following dates and locations:
April 2: noon to 6 p.m. at Kid's Kountry Place Preschool and Childcare, 3704 Elk's Drive
April 3 and April 7: 8 a.m. to 7 p.m. at Memorial Medical Center Family Medicine Center, 2605 Terrace Drive
April 6: 1 p.m. to 7:15 p.m. at Memorial Medical Center Emergency Department, 2450 S. Telshor Blvd.
April 7: 8:30 a.m. to 7 p.m. at Memorial Medical Center Family Medicine Center, 2605 Terrace Drive
April 8: 7:45 a.m. to 7:30 p.m. at Memorial Medical Center Emergency Department and Pediatric unit, 2450 S. Telshor Blvd.
NMDOH requests that anyone exposed or showing symptoms call the measles Helpline at 1-833-796-8773 for help in English or Spanish for vaccine questions or further measles testing. They urged patients to contact doctor's offices or emergency rooms before coming in to allow them to prepare for a potential measles case.
Measles is one of the most contagious diseases in the world, spread through contact with airborne droplets from infected people. People can spread the measles days before symptoms show, which include fever, cough, runny nose, red eyes and a red spotty rash starting on the head and face and spreading over the body.
The most effective prevention against the measles is two doses of the vaccine, according to health officials.
New Mexico's vaccination rate has more than doubled between Feb. 1 and April 14, with 18,449 vaccinations this year over the 9,863 in the same time period in 2024.
In addition to the 10 walk-in vaccine clinics in eight counties posted to the website, NMDOH announced two additional locations in Las Cruces:
Walk-in vaccine hours are from 1 to 3 p.m. Mondays from 1 to 3 p.m. and 9 a.m. to 11 a.m. Friday mornings at the Las Cruces Public Health Office, 1170 N. Solano Drive. (575) 528-5001.
From 10 a.m. to noon and 1 p.m. to 3 p.m. Wednesdays at Las Cruces East Mesa Public Health Office, 5220 Holman Road. (575) 382-0540.
In other parts of the state, cases remain unchanged at two infections reported in Eddy County and one infection in Chaves County. Nearly 60% of New Mexico's measles cases have impacted children, with 17 cases reported in very young children; 19 cases in children ages 7 to 17-years old; and 27 cases in adults.
Texas Health officials reported 20 additional cases Tuesday, totaling 561 cases in 23 counties. The majority of cases remain in Gaines County, which has one of the lowest childhood vaccination rates in Texas.
The U.S. has more than twice the number of measles cases reported in 2024.
Three reported measles deaths have occurred during the outbreak: two Texas children, and one Lea County adult, which is still under investigation, according to a spokesperson for the New Mexico Office of the Medical Investigator.
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Newsweek
5 hours ago
- Newsweek
Are America's Covid Babies Ready for School?
Based on facts, either observed and verified firsthand by the reporter, or reported and verified from knowledgeable sources. Newsweek AI is in beta. Translations may contain inaccuracies—please refer to the original content. The "COVID kids" are more than all right. Five years after the coronavirus pandemic shuttered the globe, the bulk of the 3.6 million children born in the United States in 2020 are starting kindergarten, providing many youngsters their first foray into a structured classroom setting. The atypical early childhood these kids experienced also left an indelible mark on millions of stressed-out parents as they navigated the uncertainty of lockdowns, mask mandates and childcare during one of the most extraordinary periods in modern history. Millions of children who were born during the height of the pandemic in 2020 are set to take over kindergarten classrooms. Millions of children who were born during the height of the pandemic in 2020 are set to take over kindergarten classrooms. Newsweek Illustration/Getty But all that stress, upheaval and isolation also created some unexpected benefits, including quality family time spent together, a crash course in the benefits of independent play and fewer illnesses due to a lack of visitors, parents of so-called Covid babies told Newsweek in a series of interviews. "I think they're more than ready," Dave Ruth, 44, said of his twin 5-year-old sons, John and James. "I am thrilled for them. I think they're going to thrive." Ruth, of Stafford County, Virginia, said John already knows some Spanish, basic sign language and reads simple books — all before he has even set foot inside a school. "They never saw a daycare class," he said. "Aside from playing with other kids at the playground and friends' birthday parties here and there, for the most part, they were home with my wife and me for the first years until they started school." Ruth said his sons, who started kindergarten on August 11, benefited from workbooks at home and frequent sessions on YouTube, absorbing as much instructional material as possible. Dave Ruth and his wife Lorraine with the couple's three sons, 5-year-old twins, James, left, and John, and 15-year-old David. Dave Ruth and his wife Lorraine with the couple's three sons, 5-year-old twins, James, left, and John, and 15-year-old David. Courtesy of Dave Ruth "We would give them a little bit of screen time at the end of the day," Ruth said. "I read them books and stuff, but I didn't teach them any of that." Ruth said he believes his twin boys may be better prepared for kindergarten than his eldest son, David, 15, ever was, due in part to the additional hours spent together at home during infancy and toddlerhood. "I think it was massive," he said. "Some of the shows that they watched on TV, they just soaked up everything." 'All the Feels' Lindsay Scouras, 40, said her 5-year-old son, Nico, has been anticipating the start of school for months. He previously attended preschool at a library outside Providence, Rhode Island, but September 3 will mark his first day as a kindergartner. Scouras believes Nico is ready, but the mother of two still has "all the feels," she admitted. "I find myself going back and forth between he's so ready and I can't wait to see him take this on," she said. "And then, like, oh my God, have I done everything to prepare him? He just turned five — he's a baby." Lindsay Scouras and her son Nico, who starts kindergarten in Rhode Island in early September. Lindsay Scouras and her son Nico, who starts kindergarten in Rhode Island in early September. Courtesy of Lindsay Scouras Scouras, who previously detailed her Covid-era parenting journey online at The Everymom, said becoming a mother during the pandemic offered unique challenges for caregivers and kids alike. "It kind of shook us and made us always question if we were doing the right thing," she said. "And, you know, not being able to do the normal things that you would do when have a baby — going to the mom groups, going to playdates and putting them into school or daycare and getting them socialized." Scouras didn't realize that her son needed speech therapy until he was 2 years old, largely due to pandemic-related seclusion, she said. "He wasn't speaking and I thought it was normal because I was just at home with my kid all day," she said. "And it wasn't until I went to a pediatrician, and he said he should be able to say 50 words by now. "When you don't have other children around to compare your kids to, you don't really know how they're doing." Despite missing out on some typical early experiences, Nico is "totally ready" to start kindergarten, Scouras said. Lindsay Scouras, 40, of Rhode Island, with her son Nico, daughter Sutton and husband Steven Scouras. Lindsay Scouras, 40, of Rhode Island, with her son Nico, daughter Sutton and husband Steven Scouras. Courtesy of Lindsay Scouras "He talks about kindergarten all the time," she said. "He seems really excited about it, even though he truly has no idea what to expect." Scouras said Nico is participating in a "reading challenge" at the family's local library, although he mistakenly believes that kindergarten will start once the initiative wraps up. "He doesn't seem to get the concept," she joked. "He's like, 'When I finish this chart, I'll be in kindergarten.' And I'm like, 'Well, the first day of kindergarten is going to come whether or not you finish this chart, buddy.'" Scouras, who works in public relations and marketing, said she hopes Nico inherits her devotion to education. "I'm really excited to meet his teachers and see the school," she said. "I loved school as a kid, and I just really hope that he's also in a position where he loves it. I know people talk about school and how much it's changed, but my husband and I both went to public school. I had a great experience in public school. I'm excited for him to embark on this." Creating Independent Learners Like Ruth and his twin sons, Scouras said she thinks the pandemic-linked solitude might've actually helped Nico. "He spent so much time with just adults for a long time," she said. "He is very good at independent play, I think because he was alone for so long. His sister wasn't born until he was almost 4 years old." Nowadays, Nico doesn't need as much entertainment or supervision as some of his peers and hasn't stopped talking since undergoing speech therapy, Scouras said. School buses in a storage lot on August 14 in Manchester, New Hampshire. School buses in a storage lot on August 14 in Manchester, New Hampshire. AP Photo/Charles Krupa "He gets along with and can speak really well with adults," she said. "I feel like part of that is just because he spent his very formative years with only grown ups around — you know, people that we could trust in our bubble and not going to a lot of birthdays parties, playdates and stuff like that." Scouras believes some of those skills will translate well for Nico as he enters kindergarten. "I can't think of any experience more unique than being born during a pandemic," she said. "Although I guess it's not that unique because there's literally millions of them. But we'll see how this affects them as adults. We have no idea what's to come." Read more Map shows states with best—and worst—early education systems Map shows states with best—and worst—early education systems Scouras acknowledged having prior concerns about Nico's future, but believes he's ready to tackle kindergarten after conversations with his pediatrician and preschool staff. "When he was less than 2 years old and we were still trapped inside and not knowing when the next wave was going to hit, there was a lot of those nights of, like, 'Oh my God, is this going to stunt his development forever?" she recalled. "But I also kind of remind myself: Are they all going to be OK? They're all in it together." Scouras noted another upside for those born into the teeth of the pandemic: they didn't have to endure missed milestones, like proms or graduations, that older children dealt with. "I felt more for those kids who were older, who knew what was going on," she said. "You see a lot of kids who I feel like now have been affected by having to do all their stuff online and they're so reserved now. At least he still had a chance to kind of grow and be born into a world where it's going to be a few years before he recalls anything of this, so let's just try to make this as happy and as supportive environment as we can while he's little." The additional solitude with Nico also allowed Scouras' family to create a "really good foundation" for his future, she said. "We're all very close, and I love that," she said. Social and Behavioral Concerns Casey Peeks, senior director of early childhood policy at the Washington-based liberal think tank Center for American Progress, said educators should expect to spend more time regulating the behavior of some kindergarteners this fall compared to prior years. "Teachers can always tell the very first day of kindergarten which of their students went to preschool or some other high-quality early childhood education environment," Peeks told Newsweek. "With these children who were born during the height of the pandemic, I think the social and behavioral issues will be a much larger focus this kindergarten year." Preschool, childcare workers and other early educators have experienced a significant uptick in challenging behavioral issues in recent years compared to pre-pandemic terms, Peek said, citing surveys from federal Head Start programs and other data. A back-to-school section on August 12 at a Walmart in Dallas, Texas, as millions of kindergarteners prepare to enter classrooms, many for the first time. A back-to-school section on August 12 at a Walmart in Dallas, Texas, as millions of kindergarteners prepare to enter classrooms, many for the first time. AP Photo/LM Otero "And I would imagine that would continue in kindergarten," Peeks said, adding that more early educators have also reported being burnt out from managing their post-pandemic classrooms. "I think it's the fact of dealing with these challenging behaviors, but the adults themselves were also having high levels of stress during the pandemic," the former kindergarten teacher said. "So, their own mental health, their own stress, combined with having to care for these children who were having really big behavioral and emotional challenges ... that is something that these educators have had to deal with more so than pre-pandemic." Peeks also cited researchers at Columbia University who conducted a study of 255 infants born between March and December 2020 that revealed they scored slightly lower on a screening test of social and motor skills at six months compared to their counterparts just before the coronavirus outbreak. "Yes, they might've still gone to preschool in higher numbers, but those are still delays that are going to have to be addressed over time," Peeks said. "It'll be really interesting to see the data and do surveys of kindergarten teachers of this cohort on what they've noticed compared to other class years." The Covid Generation Dr. Dani Dumitriu, the lead investigator of Columbia's ongoing study, said it's too early to understand exactly how being born in the middle of a pandemic will impact those children into adolescence and beyond. "These kids are just aging into 5, we are just starting our assessment," Dumitriu told Newsweek. "I will be able to answer that question in a couple years, but right now, I can tell you with certainty that any academic who tells you that they know something about this generation at age 5 is flatly wrong. You just simply cannot." Within the next year, Columbia expects to finish collecting data from approximately 500 4- and 5-year-olds and then spend another year analyzing those key outcomes, according to Dumitriu, an associate professor of pediatrics and director of Columbia University's Center for Early Relational Health. "In that initial paper, we showed an effect of the pandemic — not an effect of the virus, but just pandemic stress," Dumitriu said last week. "I also really want to stress the fact that six-month data does not predict five-year outcomes. The brain up until about three years of age is so plastic that you simply cannot make any inferences about the future from six-month-old data." 'Kids Are Resilient' Kentucky Lt. Gov. Jacqueline Coleman accompanied her daughter Evelynne to her first day of kindergarten on Wednesday and acknowledged having a tough time processing the bittersweet milestone. "She's fine," Coleman wrote on X. "Mom? Not so much." Coleman, a Democrat who took office in December 2019, gave birth to Evelynne in February 2020, just weeks before the World Health Organization declared the coronavirus a pandemic and states began issuing stay-at-home orders. Kentucky Lt. Gov. Jacqueline Coleman attends the first day of kindergarten with her daughter Evelynne on Wednesday. Kentucky Lt. Gov. Jacqueline Coleman attends the first day of kindergarten with her daughter Evelynne on Wednesday. Courtesy Jacqueline Coleman "There is no question that babies born during COVID, and their parents, faced very unique challenges during an already challenging time for families," Coleman told Newsweek in a statement. Similar to Nico, who was born in July 2020, Evelynne had issues with delayed speech, Coleman said. "Which made sense because she didn't have peer interaction and she was surrounded by adults who were often speaking to her through masks," Coleman said. "But once she was enrolled in daycare, she rebounded, and pre-K helped even more so. Now, we cannot get her to stop talking. I say that half-jokingly, but it also proves what we already know: kids are resilient."
Yahoo
7 hours ago
- Yahoo
15 Things Never To Say To A Friend Who's Losing It
When your friend is going through a rough patch, your instinct to help is spot on. But sometimes, even with the best intentions, the words you choose can make things worse. Instead of easing their stress, you might accidentally add to it. Here's a list of things you should never say to a friend who's losing it. It's all about supporting them in a way that doesn't feel dismissive or patronizing. 1. "Calm Down" Telling someone to "calm down" when they're visibly upset is like trying to put out a fire with gasoline. It rarely works and often aggravates the situation. This phrase can make your friend feel like their emotions are invalid or irrational, which might lead them to shut down or feel more isolated. Instead, focus on creating a space where they feel heard. Offer your presence and ask open-ended questions to help them express what they're going through. According to Dr. John Gottman, a relationship expert and researcher, validation is key to emotional connection. He emphasizes that acknowledging someone's feelings without judgment builds trust and understanding. Redirect your focus from trying to manage their emotions to simply being there for them. Your friend needs to know you're on their side, ready to listen without criticism. 2. "It Could Be Worse" When someone is struggling, comparing their situation to potential worse scenarios can feel dismissive. This phrase minimizes their pain and suggests their feelings aren't valid until they reach a perceived "worse" level. While it's often said to provide perspective, it can make your friend feel guilty for being upset. What they need is empathy, not a competition of hardships. Let your friend know that it's okay to feel overwhelmed, and their feelings are valid right where they are. Instead of comparing, offer understanding. Try saying, "I'm sorry you're going through this. It sounds incredibly tough." This kind of response acknowledges their pain without making them feel like they should be handling it differently. Being present and supportive is more valuable than trying to reframe their struggle into something less significant. 3. "You'll Get Over It" Telling someone they'll "get over it" can come off as dismissive and condescending. It implies that their current feelings aren't important and that they should move on before they're ready. This phrase can make your friend feel misunderstood and alone. A better approach is to offer your support throughout their process of coping, however long that may take. Everyone heals at their own pace, and it's crucial to respect that. A study by Dr. Brené Brown, a research professor at the University of Houston, underscores the importance of connection in healing. Her work shows that empathy drives connection, which is essential for emotional recovery. Instead of rushing your friend, be the steady presence they need. Let them set the pace for their recovery, and reassure them that you'll be there through every step. 4. "I Know Exactly How You Feel" Even if you've been through a similar experience, saying you know exactly how your friend feels might not resonate with them. Everyone processes experiences differently, and even shared situations can evoke different emotions in different people. This phrase can unintentionally shift the focus from your friend to yourself, making them feel like their unique perspective is overlooked. Instead, try to draw on your own experience to offer empathy without assuming it mirrors theirs. Share that you're there for them and acknowledge their feelings as valid and unique. A more supportive way to communicate is to listen actively and ask questions that help your friend explore their feelings. You might say, "That sounds really hard. How are you feeling about it?" This shows that you're interested in their specific situation and emotions. It's about holding space for them rather than comparing notes on who's had it worse. 5. "Everything Happens For A Reason" While this might be comforting in other contexts, it can feel dismissive when someone is in distress. Suggesting a grand design behind their pain doesn't help them feel better now. It can minimize their feelings and make them feel like they should accept the situation rather than process it. Your friend might just need to hear that it's okay to feel sad, angry, or confused right now. Focus on being present in their current reality instead of philosophizing about the future. Psychologist Dr. Susan David highlights the importance of emotional agility, which involves being present with your emotions without trying to rationalize them away. Her research suggests that accepting emotions rather than assigning them a "purpose" can lead to better emotional resilience. Offer your friend the space to feel their emotions without pressure to find meaning in them immediately. Sometimes, just being there is the best support you can offer. 6. "At Least..." Starting a sentence with "at least" is often an attempt to find a silver lining, but can come across as minimizing. Phrases like "at least you have X" or "at least it's not Y" can be perceived as invalidating their current struggle. It suggests that they should be focusing on what's going right rather than what's wrong, which might not be helpful in the moment. Your friend may hear this as an indication that their feelings are unimportant. Instead, focus on empathy and understanding without trying to shift their perspective. Offer instead a simple acknowledgment of their pain. You might say, "I'm really sorry you're dealing with this. It sounds so challenging." This approach validates their feelings and shows that you're willing to listen rather than redirect or mitigate their emotions. Remember, they need your support, not a lesson in gratitude. 7. "Just Stay Positive" While maintaining positivity can be powerful, insisting on it during a friend's low moment might not be helpful. This phrase can sound like you're telling them to ignore their current feelings and skip straight to happiness. It can make them feel as though their emotions aren't valid, which might lead to increased feelings of isolation. Instead of pushing positivity, encourage them to express what they're going through. Allow them to feel what they need to feel without immediate pressure to "bounce back." Research by Dr. Martin Seligman, a pioneer of positive psychology, suggests that authentic happiness is built on genuine feelings, not forced cheerfulness. He found that confronting and understanding our emotions can lead to more sustainable psychological health. So, rather than urging your friend to stay positive, support them in understanding and processing their feelings. Let them know it's okay to not be okay sometimes, and you'll be there with them through it. 8. "You're Overreacting" Telling someone they're overreacting can be a quick way to invalidate their emotions. It suggests that their feelings are bigger than they should be, which can make them feel ashamed or embarrassed. This phrase doesn't offer any real support or understanding and might cause your friend to retreat. Instead, try to understand why they're feeling the way they are. Encourage them to talk openly about what's weighing them down so they feel seen and heard. Ask questions to create a supportive dialogue. You might say, "Can you tell me more about what's going on?" This shows you're genuinely interested in understanding their perspective. By encouraging them to open up, you help foster a supportive environment rather than one where feelings are judged or minimized. 9. "You're Strong, You'll Get Through This" While intended as a compliment, this can add pressure to "be strong" when they may not feel capable of it. It suggests that showing vulnerability is not an option, which can exacerbate feelings of failure or inadequacy. Your friend might feel like they're letting people down by struggling, even if they're doing their best. Instead, remind them that it's okay to not always feel strong. Offer your support by being there for them in their weakest moments. Genuine encouragement is about acknowledging their struggle and offering a shoulder to lean on. You can say, "I'm here for you, no matter what." This reassures them that they don't have to face everything alone. Your friend needs to know that their support system is strong, even when they're not feeling strong themselves. 10. "Others Have It Worse" Comparing your friend's struggles to those of others can inadvertently belittle what they're going through. It implies that their pain is only valid if it's the worst out there, which is rarely the case. Instead of being comforting, it can make them feel guilty about their feelings. Everyone's experiences are different, and pain isn't a competitive sport. Focus on offering understanding and compassion instead of comparisons. Acknowledge their pain without bringing others into the conversation. You might say, "I'm really sorry you're going through this. It sounds incredibly tough." This approach validates their feelings and shows that you value their experience. Supporting your friend means respecting their individual journey, not measuring it against others. 11. "Just Let It Go" Saying "just let it go" simplifies a potentially complex emotional process. It implies that their feelings are something they can simply switch off, which isn't realistic or fair. Letting go takes time and often involves understanding and processing deep emotions. Your friend might feel more pressured or frustrated if they believe they can't meet this expectation. Instead, support their journey toward healing, no matter how long it takes. Encourage them to take the steps they need to heal at their own pace. You might say, "I'm here for you, however you need to work through this." This reassures your friend that there's no timeline or rush to "move on." Provide your support without setting expectations about how they should handle their emotions. 12. "Cheer Up" Telling someone to "cheer up" might seem like simple advice, but it can come across as dismissive. It suggests that their sadness or anxiety is something they can just turn off like a light switch. This phrase often fails to acknowledge the complexity of their emotions and can leave them feeling misunderstood. Your friend likely wants to feel better but may not know how to get there. Instead, offer your presence and understanding, and avoid quick-fix solutions. A more helpful approach might be to ask, "Is there anything I can do to help?" This shows you're willing to support them in practical ways. It acknowledges their feelings without suggesting that they just need to change their mindset. Being there in a tangible way can mean more than any words meant to lift their spirits. 13. "Get Over It" "Get over it" can be incredibly hurtful, as it dismisses your friend's feelings entirely. It implies that their emotions are trivial and shouldn't be given any more thought. This phrase can deepen feelings of isolation and make your friend feel unsupported. Instead of forcing them to move on, encourage them to explore their feelings at their own pace. Support their healing process by being a patient and understanding presence in their life. Show empathy by saying, "I'm here for you as long as you need." This lets your friend know they don't have to rush their recovery. Your patience and willingness to stand by them can be incredibly comforting and healing. Remember, your friend isn't looking for a quick fix, but for genuine support as they navigate their emotions. Solve the daily Crossword
Scientific American
10 hours ago
- Scientific American
How Scientists Finally Learned That Nerves Regrow
Billions of nerve cells send signals coursing through our bodies, serving as conduits through which the brain performs its essential functions. For millennia physicians thought damage to nerves was irreversible. In ancient Greece, founders of modern medicine such as Hippocrates and Galen refused to operate on damaged nerves for fear of causing pain, convulsions or even death. The dogma stood relatively still until the past two centuries, during which surgeons and scientists found evidence that neurons in the body and brain can repair themselves and regenerate after injury and that new nerve cells can grow throughout the lifespan. In recent decades this knowledge has inspired promising treatments for nerve injuries and has led researchers to investigate interventions for neurodegenerative disease. In humans and other vertebrates, the nervous system is split into two parts: the central nervous system, composed of the spinal cord and brain, and the peripheral nervous system, which connects the brain to the rest of the body. On supporting science journalism If you're enjoying this article, consider supporting our award-winning journalism by subscribing. By purchasing a subscription you are helping to ensure the future of impactful stories about the discoveries and ideas shaping our world today. Attempts to suture together the ends of damaged neurons in the peripheral nervous system date back to the seventh century. It was only in the late 1800s, however, that scientists began to understand how, exactly, nerves regenerate. Through his experiments on frogs, British physiologist Augustus Waller described in detail what happens to a peripheral nerve after injury. Then, in the 1900s, the influential Spanish neuroanatomist Santiago Ramón y Cajal provided insight into how nerve regeneration occurs at the cellular level. Still, there remained fierce debate about whether stitching nerves together would harm more than help. It was against the backdrop of bloody world wars of the 20th century that physicians finally made significant advances in techniques to restore damaged neurons. To treat soldiers with devastating wounds that typically involved nerve damage, doctors developed methods such as nerve grafts, in which pieces of nerves are transplanted into the gap in a broken nerve. Over time physicians learned that some peripheral nerve injuries are more conducive to repair than others. Factors such as the timing, location and size of the injury, as well as the age of the patient, can significantly impact the success of any given intervention. Crushed nerves are likelier than cut ones to be repaired, and injuries that occur closer to a nerve's target tissue have a greater chance of regaining function than those that occur farther away. Take the ulnar nerve, which stretches the entire length of the arm and controls key muscles in the lower arm and hand. A person with nerve damage near the wrist is much more likely to regain function in the arm and hand after undergoing treatment than someone who injures the same nerve near the shoulder, in which case it must regrow from the shoulder all the way to the wrist. Even today many peripheral nerve injuries remain difficult to treat, and scientists are striving to better understand the mechanisms of regeneration to facilitate healing. One notable development in recent years, according to neurologist Ahmet Höke of the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, is a 'nerve transfer,' in which a branch of a nearby nerve is rerouted to a damaged nerve. In cases where, for example, a nerve is damaged far from its target muscle, existing techniques may not be sufficient to enable regrowth across the long distances involved within a time frame allowing for recovery. This detour provides an alternative pathway to regain function. Susan Mackinnon, a plastic and reconstructive surgeon at Washington University in St. Louis, has largely driven the advances in nerve transfer, enabling patients to use their limbs after peripheral nerve injuries that previously would have led to a permanent loss of movement in them. For instance, Oskar Hanson, a high school baseball player, lost sensation and movement in most of his left arm after a surgery to mend a ligament injury ended up damaging the ulnar nerve in that arm. 'There was zero hope that he would be able to have use of his arm again,' says his mother, Patricia Hanson. But after Mackinnon performed a nerve transfer procedure, most of the function returned. 'She saved his life with that surgery,' Hanson says. Despite the leaps that were made in treating peripheral nerve injuries, the notion that neurons within the central nervous system—the brain and spinal cord—were incapable of regrowth persisted until the late 20th century. A pivotal moment came in the early 1980s, when Canadian neuroscientist Albert Aguayo and his colleagues demonstrated that in rats, neurons of the spinal cord and brain stem could regrow when segments of peripheral nerves were grafted into the site of injury. These findings revealed that neurons of the central nervous system can also regenerate, Höke says: 'They just needed the appropriate environment.' In succeeding years, neuroscientists worked to uncover what, exactly, that environment looked like. To do so, they searched for differences in the peripheral and central nervous systems that could explain why the former was better able to repair damaged neurons. Several key differences emerged. For example, only injuries within the central nervous system led to the formation of glial scars—masses of nonneuronal cells known as glial cells. The purpose of these scars is still debated, however. Today the search for the specific mechanisms that prevent or enable neuron regrowth—in both the body and the brain—remains an active area of investigation. In addition to uncovering the processes at play in humans, scientists have pinpointed molecules that enable nerve cell repair in other organisms, such as 'fusogens,' gluelike molecules found in nematodes. Researchers are attempting to harness fusogens to help with difficult-to-treat human nerve injuries. Modern neuroscientists have also challenged another long-standing doctrine in the field: the belief that the adult brain does not engage in neurogenesis, the creation of brand-new nerve cells. Early clues for neurogenesis in the brain emerged in the 1960s, when researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology observed signs of neurons dividing in the brains of adult rats. At the time, these findings were met with skepticism, says Rusty Gage, a professor of genetics at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies in La Jolla, Calif. 'It was just too hard to believe.' Then, in the early 1980s, neuroscientist Fernando Nottebohm of the Rockefeller University discovered that in male songbirds, the size of the brain region associated with song-making changed with the seasons. Nottebohm and his colleagues went on to show that cells in the animals' brains died and regenerated with the seasons. Inspired by these findings, researchers looked for signs of adult neurogenesis in other animals. In 1998 Gage and his colleagues revealed evidence of this process occurring in the brains of adult humans—specifically within the hippocampus, a region linked with learning and memory. Although support for adult neurogenesis in humans has amassed over the years, some experts still debate its existence. In 2018 a team co-led by Arturo Alvarez-Buylla, a neuroscientist at the University of California, San Francisco, who had worked with Nottebohm on songbirds, published a study stating that the formation of new neurons was extremely rare, and likely nonexistent, in adult human brains. Still, there's a growing consensus that neurogenesis does happen later in life —and that this growth appears to be largely limited to certain parts of the brain, such as the hippocampus. This past July a team at the Karolinska Institute in Sweden reported that the molecular signatures of precursors of neurons, known as neural progenitor cells, were present in the human brain across the lifespan—from infancy into old age. Researchers are now trying to understand the purpose of these budding nerve cells and asking whether they might offer clues for treating neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease. Some scientists are even exploring whether, by targeting neurogenesis, they can improve the symptoms of psychiatric conditions such as post-traumatic stress disorder. Understanding that a neuron can regrow and be repaired and identifying details of that process has been a great achievement, says Massimo Hilliard, a cellular and molecular neurobiologist at the University of Queensland in Australia. The next step, he adds, will be figuring out how to control these processes: 'That's going to be key.'
