Gulf Connections: How coffee-shop culture was brewed in 13th-century Makkah

The National

7 hours ago

With specialist milks, flavoured syrups and intricate brewing techniques, the coffee house as an international brand was introduced with the opening of the world's first Starbucks in Seattle on March 30, 1971.
But the rich history of coffee shop culture stretches back many centuries before that – to both Europe and the Middle East.
One of the earliest was opened in Vienna in 1685, with the story that the coffee beans were discovered left behind when the Turks retreated after the failed siege of the city two years earlier. It was here that milk was first added.
In fact travellers to Asia were already talking of a drink 'black in colour and made by infusing the powdered berry of a plant that flourished in Arabia' and could be consumed 'all day long and far into the night, with no apparent desire for sleep but with mind and body continuously alert'.
By the 17th century, coffee drinking was already established across the Ottoman Empire, reaching Istanbul as early as the 15th century, where customer could enjoy conversation and play games like backgammon and chess along with their daily brew.
Coffee had reached Istanbul through Persia and other cities in the region like Baghdad, Damascus and Cairo, introduced by merchants from those cities.
The empire brews black
The Syrian capital was probably the first to introduce coffee drinking, with Damascus brought under the Ottoman Empire by the early 16th century.
Ottoman rule also extended into Arabia, down the Red Sea to the holy cities of Madinah and Makkah by 1517.
Citizens of what is now Saudi Arabia were already familiar with the coffee bean, originally grown to be chewed as a stimulant in Ethiopia and probably first brewed as a beverage in Yemen sometime in the 1400s.
Makkah is where we find the world's first coffee houses, places for trading beans and socialising and where the word 'coffee' evolved from the Arabic qahwah.
They may have existed as early as the 13th century, known as qahveh kaneh, or home of coffee, and were probably used to gather and study religious text. Later they became places to socialise, with music and games, and to discuss politics.
It was this that led to its banning in 1511 by the governor of Makkah, Khair Bey, who feared drinkers would be overstimulated and rise up against his rule. The ban was eventually lifted in 1523 on the orders of Sultan Selim I in Cairo, who declared coffee sacred. Khair Bey was then executed.
Fast forward nearly 500 years to when Starbucks struck a licensing deal to enter the Middle East. In 2000, the Alshaya Group opened the first Starbucks in Saudi Arabia at Khobar's Rashid Mall, with over 400 branches now operating in the kingdom.
The world's most famous coffee brand is now firmly entrenched in the original home of the coffee shop.
A taste of independence
Meanwhile, America's thirst for coffee is ingrained in the national conscience.
Coffee had been sipped in the US since the revolution, in part because it was seen an act of defiance against taxes imposed on tea by Britain in 1773.
Boston coffee house the Green Dragon became known as the 'headquarters of the revolution' after the Sons of Liberty, a clandestine group dedicated to end of English tyranny, began meeting there.
Its popularity was reinforced during the American Civil War when Union troops were issued with 36lbs, or 16.3kg, of coffee beans a year, with generals believing it was both a comfort and stimulant in combat. Historians researching soldiers' letters home found they mentioned coffee more than president Abraham Lincoln, slavery or even the war itself.
Most of the coffee in the US was grown on the islands of the Caribbean. The first seedlings were imported to Martinique in 1720, on French plantations that used African slaves for labour. By the end of the 18th century the Caribbean supplied almost half of the world's coffee.