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The Hindu
a day ago
- Health
- The Hindu
India's toxic taps: how groundwater contamination is fuelling chronic illnesses
Despite India's rivers and seasonal monsoons, it is groundwater that sustains most of the nation's domestic and agricultural needs. Over 85% of rural drinking water and 65% of irrigation water come from below the surface. However, the rapid and often unregulated extraction of this vital resource has triggered a growing yet largely invisible crisis: groundwater pollution. Once considered nature's purest reserve, groundwater is now contaminated with nitrates, heavy metals, industrial toxins, and pathogenic microbes—posing a silent but grave threat to millions. The 2024 Annual Groundwater Quality Report by the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) reveals alarming findings. More than 20% of samples from 440 districts were contaminated with nitrates, largely due to the overuse of chemical fertilisers and leaching from septic systems. Excessive fluoride was detected in over 9% of samples, causing widespread dental and skeletal fluorosis—particularly in Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana. Arsenic levels in parts of Punjab and Bihar far exceeded the World Health Organization (WHO) limit of 10 µg/L, increasing the risk of cancer and neurological disorders. Districts in Punjab, Andhra Pradesh, and Rajasthan reported uranium concentrations above 100 ppb—attributed to phosphate fertilisers and unregulated groundwater withdrawal. Over 13% of tested samples also exceeded safe limits for iron, contributing to gastrointestinal and developmental disorders. These figures are not mere statistics—they reflect systemic neglect and policy inertia. Also Read: Water woes: On the state of India's groundwater Groundwater death zones In Budhpur, Baghpat (Uttar Pradesh), 13 people died within a fortnight this year, from kidney failure and related complications—allegedly linked to toxic discharges from nearby paper and sugar mills contaminating local borewells. In Jalaun, residents reported petroleum-like fluids from handpumps due to suspected underground fuel leaks. In Paikarapur, Bhubaneswar, sewage seepage from a faulty treatment plant led to the mass illness of hundreds. These are not isolated incidents. These events reveal a disturbing pattern of weak enforcement, institutional apathy, and the public invisibility of a growing underground disaster. Health impacts: what data reveals Groundwater contamination in India has escalated into a national public health crisis. Studies by the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) and WHO India have documented widespread health consequences due to toxic substances in drinking water. Fluoride contamination affects 230 districts across 20 states. Around 66 million people suffer from skeletal fluorosis—a debilitating condition that causes joint pain, bone deformities, and stunted growth, particularly in children. In Rajasthan, over 11,000 villages have reported cases. In Jhabua (Madhya Pradesh), fluoride levels exceed 5 mg/L, with 40% of tribal children affected. Unnao (Uttar Pradesh) has recorded over 3,000 skeletal deformity cases. The 2024 CGWB report found that 9.04% of 15,259 samples groundwater samples exceeded the WHO's 1.5 mg/L fluoride limit. Sonebhadra (U.P.) reported a 52.3% prevalence rate, and levels in Shivpuri (M.P.) reached 2.92 mg/L. Effective interventions include defluoridation, improved nutrition, and provision of safe drinking water. Arsenic exposure is concentrated in the Gangetic belt—including West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, and Assam—and leads to skin lesions, gangrene, respiratory problems, and various internal cancers. A study conducted in Bihar, published in Nature Scientific Reports in 2021, reveals that elevated blood arsenic levels make 1 in 100 individuals highly vulnerable to cancer, including cancers of the skin, kidney, liver, bladder, and lungs, as well as other secondary cancer types. In Ballia (U.P.), arsenic concentrations reached 200 µg/L—20 times the WHO limit— linked to over 10,000 cases of cancer and other diseases. In Bihar's Bhojpur and Buxar districts, similar impacts have been observed. While arsenic is geogenic, its mobilisation is worsened by groundwater over-extraction, mining, and irrigation. The 2024 CGWB report identified unsafe arsenic levels in 29 districts of U.P., with Bagpat recording 40 mg/L—4,000 times above the safe threshold. Nitrate contamination is rampant in northern India and poses a severe threat to infants. When baby formula is mixed with nitrate-laced water, it can cause 'blue baby syndrome' (methemoglobinemia). The 2023 National Health Profile recorded a 28% rise in hospital admissions from acute nitrate toxicity over five years, particularly in Punjab, Haryana, and Karnataka. Today, 56% of Indian districts exceed safe nitrate levels. Uranium, once confined to select geological zones, is increasingly detected due to excessive groundwater extraction and fertiliser use. A study by the Central University of Punjab in the Malwa region found uranium levels in groundwater exceeding the WHO threshold of 30 µg/L, posing serious risks of chronic organ damage and nephrotoxicity. The results showed that 66% of samples posed health risks for children and 44% for adults. Heavy metals—lead, cadmium, chromium, mercury—enter groundwater from unchecked industrial discharges, causing developmental delays, anaemia, immune system issues, and neurological damage. The ICMR-National Institute for Research in Environmental Health (NIREH) found dangerously high blood lead levels among children near industrial clusters in Kanpur (U.P.) and Vapi (Gujarat). Contamination from leaking septic systems and sewage infiltration has triggered repeated outbreaks of cholera, dysentery, and hepatitis A and E. In Paikarapur, Bhubaneswar, over 500 residents were recently affected by a waterborne disease outbreak tied to sewage-contaminated groundwater. Why the crisis persists The crisis is rooted in a fragmented regulatory system. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, scarcely addresses groundwater. The CGWB lacks statutory authority, and State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) are under-resourced and technically constrained. Industries operate with minimal oversight, and sanitation infrastructure, especially in rural and peri-urban India, remains deficient. Also Read: Death by contamination: On Indian cities and unsafe drinking water Key structural issues include: Institutional fragmentation: Agencies such as CGWB, CPCB, SPCBs, and the Ministry of Jal Shakti operate in silos, often duplicating efforts and lacking coordination for integrated, science-based interventions. Weak legal enforcement: While the Water Act exists, its enforcement—especially on groundwater discharge—is inadequate. Regulatory loopholes and lax compliance embolden polluters. Lack of real-rime, publicly-accessible data: Monitoring is infrequent and poorly disseminated. Without early warning systems or integration with public health surveillance, contamination often goes undetected until after serious health outcomes emerge. Over-extraction:Excessive pumping lowers water tables and concentrates pollutants, making aquifers more vulnerable to geogenic toxins and salinity intrusion. What needs to change India's groundwater crisis calls for a bold, coordinated, and multi-dimensional strategy that integrates regulation, technology, health, and public participation. Key reforms include: A National Groundwater Pollution Control Framework: Clearly define responsibilities across agencies and empower the CGWB with regulatory authority. Modernized monitoring infrastructure: Use real-time sensors, remote sensing, and open-access platforms. Integrate water quality data with health surveillance systems like HMIS for early detection. Targeted remediation and health interventions: Install community-level arsenic and fluoride removal systems, especially in high-risk regions. Expand piped water access and awareness campaigns. Urban and industrial waste reforms: Mandate Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD), regulate landfills strictly, and enforce penalties for illegal discharges. Agrochemical reform: Promote organic farming, regulate fertiliser and pesticide use, and encourage balanced nutrient management. Citizen-Centric groundwater governance: Strengthen the role of panchayats, water user groups, and school programmes in water testing, monitoring, and advocacy. The water below, and within India's groundwater crisis is no longer about quantity—it is about safety and survival. With over 600 million people depending on it every day, this is a public health emergency, not just an environmental issue. As India aspires to become a $5 trillion economy, millions remain deprived of the most essential resource: clean water. Groundwater pollution is silent, invisible, and slow—but its damage is irreversible. Unless urgent, collective action is taken, we risk learning the value of clean water only when the well runs dry. And in doing so, we will pay the price not in rupees, but in lives and lost futures. (Dr. Sudheer Kumar Shukla is an environmental scientist and sustainability expert. He currently serves as head-think tank at Mobius Foundation, New Delhi. sshukla@ )
Time of India
2 days ago
- Politics
- Time of India
State has used upto 60% of its groundwater, Rajya Sabha told
1 2 Bhopal: The state has extracted nearly 60% of its groundwater reserves, placing it among the country's most water-stressed states, Rajya Sabha was informed. The state's extraction rate is higher than those of neighbouring Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra and Gujarat. The state ranks 12th nationally in terms of groundwater extraction as a percentage of total available resources. Punjab recorded the highest stage of groundwater extraction, followed by Rajasthan. The data was shared on Aug 4 by the Union minister of state for Jal Shakti, Raj Bhushan Choudhary, in response to a written query from MPs Subhash Barala, Mayankkumar Nayak, Kesridevsinh Jhala and Narayana Koragappa. The Rajya Sabha members had sought details on the status of groundwater across states, pollution levels, and measures being taken to address the crisis. Choudhary replied that assessment of dynamic groundwater resources of each state/UT was being carried out on an annual basis jointly by the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB), and the concerned state nodal/ground water departments. As per the report of 'National Compilation of Dynamic Ground Water Resources of India, 2024', the total annual groundwater recharge in the country has been assessed as 446.9 billion cubic metres (bcm). by Taboola by Taboola Sponsored Links Sponsored Links Promoted Links Promoted Links You May Like The Most Beautiful Women In The World Undo Total annual extractable groundwater resource has been assessed as 406.19 bcm, and the total annual groundwater extraction for all purposes (like domestic, industrial, agricultural uses etc) is estimated as 245.64 bcm. The stage of groundwater extraction (SoE), which is defined as a ratio of annual groundwater extraction over annual extractable groundwater resources for the whole country, has arrived at 60.47%. Water being a state subject, sustainable development and management of groundwater resources are primarily the responsibility of the state govts. However, the central govt facilitates the efforts of the state govts by way of technical and financial assistance through its various schemes and projects. In this direction, the important steps taken by the ministry included the govt implemented "Jal Shakti Abhiyan" launched in 2019. As per the Abhiyan dashboard, in the past 4 years, more than 1.14 cr water harvesting and recharge works have been completed through coordination in the country. Further, the CGWB has also completed the National Aquifer Mapping project covering approximately 25 lakh square km of mappable area across the country. The central govt is implementing Atal Bhujal Yojana in 80 water stressed districts of 7 states which has community-led sustainable management of groundwater resources and demand management as its core theme. The CGWA has been constituted under the ministry for the purpose of regulation and control of groundwater development and management in the country. It generates ground water quality data of the entire country on a regional scale as part of its groundwater quality monitoring program and various scientific studies. It may be recalled that 'Dynamic Groundwater Resources of Madhya Pradesh 2024' report had revealed that groundwater extraction in parts of Madhya Pradesh, including its major cities, Bhopal and Indore has reached alarming levels. The industrial capital Indore was rated in "critical", while Bhopal was under "semi-critical" category and had extracted close to 80 per cent of groundwater. The state's Malwa region overall was rated in the critical category. The report stated out of the total 317 assessment units (hydrogeological units), 225 assessment units fall in the safe category, 61 assessment units fall under semi-critical, 5 in critical and 26 fall in the over exploited category.
Time of India
3 days ago
- Politics
- Time of India
State has used up 60% of its groundwater, Rajya Sabha told
Bhopal: The state has extracted nearly 60% of its groundwater reserves, placing it among the country's most water-stressed states, Rajya Sabha was informed. The state's extraction rate is higher than those of neighbouring Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra and Gujarat. The state ranks 12th nationally in terms of groundwater extraction as a percentage of total available resources. Punjab recorded the highest stage of groundwater extraction, followed by Rajasthan. The data was shared on Aug 4 by the Union minister of state for Jal Shakti, Raj Bhushan Choudhary, in response to a written query from MPs Subhash Barala, Mayankkumar Nayak, Kesridevsinh Jhala and Narayana Koragappa. The Rajya Sabha members had sought details on the status of groundwater across states, pollution levels, and measures being taken to address the crisis. Choudhary replied that assessment of dynamic groundwater resources of each state/UT was being carried out on an annual basis jointly by the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB), and the concerned state nodal/ground water departments. As per the report of 'National Compilation of Dynamic Ground Water Resources of India, 2024', the total annual groundwater recharge in the country has been assessed as 446.9 billion cubic metres (bcm). by Taboola by Taboola Sponsored Links Sponsored Links Promoted Links Promoted Links You May Like Overpaying for Car Insurance? Find Out With This Quick and Easy Tool. AutoSaveMax Get Quote Undo Total annual extractable groundwater resource has been assessed as 406.19 bcm, and the total annual groundwater extraction for all purposes (like domestic, industrial, agricultural uses etc) is estimated as 245.64 bcm. The stage of groundwater extraction (SoE), which is defined as a ratio of annual groundwater extraction over annual extractable groundwater resources for the whole country, has arrived at 60.47%. Water being a state subject, sustainable development and management of groundwater resources are primarily the responsibility of the state govts. However, the central govt facilitates the efforts of the state govts by way of technical and financial assistance through its various schemes and projects. In this direction, the important steps taken by the ministry included the govt implemented "Jal Shakti Abhiyan" launched in 2019. As per the Abhiyan dashboard, in the past 4 years, more than 1.14 cr water harvesting and recharge works have been completed through coordination in the country. Further, the CGWB has also completed the National Aquifer Mapping project covering approximately 25 lakh square km of mappable area across the country. The central govt is implementing Atal Bhujal Yojana in 80 water stressed districts of 7 states which has community-led sustainable management of groundwater resources and demand management as its core theme. The CGWA has been constituted under the ministry for the purpose of regulation and control of groundwater development and management in the country. It generates ground water quality data of the entire country on a regional scale as part of its groundwater quality monitoring program and various scientific studies. It may be recalled that 'Dynamic Groundwater Resources of Madhya Pradesh 2024' report had revealed that groundwater extraction in parts of Madhya Pradesh, including its major cities, Bhopal and Indore has reached alarming levels. The industrial capital Indore was rated in "critical", while Bhopal was under "semi-critical" category and had extracted close to 80 per cent of groundwater. The state's Malwa region overall was rated in the critical category. The report stated out of the total 317 assessment units (hydrogeological units), 225 assessment units fall in the safe category, 61 assessment units fall under semi-critical, 5 in critical and 26 fall in the over exploited category.
Time of India
4 days ago
- Health
- Time of India
TOI Impact: Rights panel seeks report on uranium toxicity in Punjab groundwater
Chandigarh: Taking suo motu cognisance of a TOI report, Punjab State and Chandigarh Human Rights Commission has sought an explanation from Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) over alarming levels of contamination in Punjab's groundwater. The TOI report, published on Aug 5, revealed that nearly one-third of groundwater samples analysed by CGWB in Punjab contained toxic levels of uranium, along with harmful concentrations of arsenic, fluoride, and nitrate, raising serious public health concerns. The commission — comprising chairperson Justice Sant Parkash and member Justice Gurbir Singh — has directed the CGWB regional director to submit a report before the next hearing on Sept 25. The ministry of state for Jal Shakti, in response to Rajya Sabha MP Swati Maliwal, noted that 32.6% of groundwater samples tested in Punjab exceeded the permissible uranium limit of 0.03 mg/L — the highest contamination rate among all tested parameters. By comparison, 10.7% of samples in Delhi breached the same threshold. High uranium levels in drinking water are known to cause kidney damage and long-term health complications. by Taboola by Taboola Sponsored Links Sponsored Links Promoted Links Promoted Links You May Like 5 Books Warren Buffett Wants You to Read In 2025 Blinkist: Warren Buffett's Reading List Undo Of the 908 samples analysed in Punjab, 296 contained uranium beyond safe limits. Other toxic elements were also found in significant proportions. Fluoride levels exceeded the safe limit of 1.5 mg/L in 13.8% of samples, with long-term exposure linked to arthritis, infertility, hypertension, neurotoxicity, and skeletal cancer, as well as potential damage to the liver, kidneys, and lungs. Nitrate contamination was observed in 12.6% of 922 samples, surpassing the permissible limit of 45 mg/L. Arsenic levels were above the safety threshold of 0.01 mg/L in 4.8% of samples. Additionally, electrical conductivity (EC) exceeded 3000 µS/cm at 25°C in 6.7% of samples, indicating high salinity and the likely presence of dissolved solids.
The Hindu
27-06-2025
- General
- The Hindu
Is India plumbing the depths of groundwater?
India is the world's largest groundwater guzzler. It extracted around 245 billion cubic metres (BCM) for irrigating cropland alone in 2011 – about 25% of the world's groundwater consumption. More recently, as of 2023, the annual groundwater recharge was around 449 BCM while the extraction rate was 241 BCM, meaning India is drawing roughly 60% of whatever groundwater is available every year. According to a 2023 report prepared by the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB), the number of over-exploited assessment units — where the rate of extraction exceeded the rate of recharge — stood at 11.2% of 6,553 units in 2023. Of course, national trends obfuscate more worrisome regional ones. India's groundwater crisis becomes most apparent when we take a closer look at its use for agriculture and to quench the thirst of the country's burgeoning urban populace. The 2023 report found that 91% of the groundwater is extractable; the rest is natural discharge. And of the annual extraction, irrigation and domestic consumption divert 87% and 11% respectively. Only 2% is for industrial use. The water tour The bulk of India's groundwater-stressed areas lie in North and Central India, plus some parts of interior Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Punjab and Haryana: Satellite-based studies have found that between 2003 and 2020, Punjab and Haryana lost 64.6 BCM of groundwater. Between 2002 and 2021, groundwater levels dropped by 70% across all monitored wells in Punjab, with the water table plummeting by more than 4 metres. The tubewell is a common sight in the paddy fields of Punjab. It uses a motor to pump water up through a bore and into a temporary reservoir on the surface. From there, the water flows to the fields. Three-fourths (72%) of Punjab's irrigated area today bank on tubewells. The State also provides subsidised or free electricity to power these tubewells, among other appliances, in order to make farming in this region more profitable. But over the years, the pendulum of the region's water dependence has swung the other way. Rather than keep farming viable for farmers, as envisaged at the start of the Green Revolution, Punjab and Haryana have rendered water-intensive agriculture the norm. Punjab alone has 15 lakh tubewells today, up from 1.9 lakh in 1970, extracting 4.4 BCM per week at their peak. Nearly 80% of Punjab's blocks are thus classified as 'over-exploited': in 2023, it drew 164 units of water for every 100 units recharged. In many districts in central Punjab, the average drop in the water table is 0.5 m per year. Many farmers have responded by simply digging deeper. In Sangrur, farmers have reportedly drilled 55 m over 20 years. Likewise, Haryana draws around 136 units of water for every 100 units recharged. Just between 2017 and 2023, the number of 'over-exploited' blocks in the State grew by 11 percentage points. Removing groundwater also leaves water more loaded with mineral salts and heavy metals. Both independent and government-conducted tests in the two States have reported the presence of excess uranium, arsenic, and chloride and fluoride ions in many locations. In Haryana's southern districts, the groundwater has already been declared unfit for drinking. Uttar Pradesh: The upper Ganga-Yamuna doab and the surrounding areas of western Uttar Pradesh also practice water-intensive agriculture and experience groundwater stress. Uttar Pradesh as a whole is extracting 71 units of water for every 100 units recharged but there is a sharp contrast between its eastern and western regions. Almost all 'over-exploited' blocks in the State are in its west, per a 2020 report of the CGWB. In some districts in the region, the water table has dropped by more than 20 m in the last few decades. There are two sets of reasons. One is as in Punjab/Haryana: large areas under paddy and wheat, more land being devoted to cultivating sugarcane (which is even more water-intensive), unchecked use of tubewells, and subsidised electricity for pumps. The other is region-specific: Uttar Pradesh's groundwater is also stressed to a significant degree by urbanisation (see next section). Together, in 2017, about 11% of the State's blocks were 'over-exploited'. Policies to conserve water and the occasionally strong monsoon have reversed trends for short periods but the long-term prognosis is clear: western Uttar Pradesh is on thin ice. Eastern Uttar Pradesh receives more rain and its rivers have more volume, so its aquifers often recharge faster than they are depleted. Rajasthan: Rajasthan presents a more troubling picture. It is drawing 149 units of water for every 100 units replenished and it is already India's driest State. This combination renders its loss of water more critical. A 2022 government report concluded that 203 out of 249 blocks in the State were either 'critical' or 'over-exploited'. What little rice Rajasthan cultivates is fed by canal water and the bulk of the water it draws from the ground is diverted to sustain rural households and livelihoods. Cotton, wheat, and mustard crops in northwest and central Rajasthan are watered by tubewells. Bhilwara and Tonk in southeast Rajasthan enjoy relatively more rain but also spend more of that water to keep up double-cropping. Fluoride and salt contamination are common in Rajasthan's deep aquifers. In some parts, the prevalence of fluorosis — when a body ingests too much fluoride-heavy water, resulting in significant damage to bones and joints — is almost double the national average. There have been some positive developments as well. The State has pioneered rainwater harvesting and artificial recharge; State-led programmes such as the 'Mukhyamantri Jal Swavlamban Abhiyan' have encouraged the building of thousands of village ponds. Rajasthan is thus one of a few States where water levels in more than half of all monitored wells (51.7%) have been improving over time. Maharashtra: According to the CGWB, Maharashtra extracts 54 units of groundwater for every 100 units recharged; in 2023, only 2.5% of its 350+ talukas were classified as 'over-exploited'. But the State's central and western areas paint a different picture. The southwest monsoon has repeatedly 'failed' over Marathwada in particular and every time it has, the region has suffered a full-blown water crisis. Groundwater is directly affected as a result, more so since the region also hosts cash crops like cotton and sugarcane. According to reports, farmers in parts of Marathwada have sunk borewells down to 90 m or more in the last three decades. In some areas of Beed, the water table is now more than a quarter of a kilometre deep. In 2016, Marathwada was so water-stressed the government had to transport water by train to Latur district. On the other hand, water-intensive agriculture afflicts many parts of west Maharashtra. Ahmednagar, Pune, Sangli, Solapur, and Satara form a near-contiguous irrigated belt to feed numerous sugarcane farms and sugar mills. While this 'sugar belt' has some dams and canals, most of the water comes through borewells, especially in summer. In and around Nasik and Pune, grape and pomegranate cultivation has expanded as well, driving an increase in the number of tubewells. According to the CGWB, around 16% of talukas in the State are 'semi-critical' and 5% are 'critical' or 'over-exploited'. Tamil Nadu: Tamil Nadu's water needs are met predominantly by groundwater and the northeast monsoon. And it is telling that even in its delta districts, including Nagapattinam, water levels in almost all monitored wells have often been observed to fall between pre-monsoon and post-monsoon checkpoints, meaning even rainfall has not been able to staunch extraction. One study estimated that between 2002 and 2012, the State's extraction exceeded recharge by 8%. By 2017, levels in around 89% of monitored wells in the State were dropping, led by districts in its north and west. For example, in 2013-2017, the number of 'over-exploited' blocks in Tiruvallur increased by 75%. In July 2024, Minister of State for Jal Shakti Rajbhushan Choudhary said in the Rajya Sabha: 'In order to assess the long-term fluctuation in groundwater level in Tamil Nadu, the water-level data collected by CGWB in Tamil Nadu during November 2023 has been compared with the decadal mean water levels for the month of November from 2013 to 2022. … Analysis of water level data indicated that about 72.6% of the wells monitored registered a rise in groundwater levels.' But a longer long-term trend points the other way. In 2024, of 14.45 BCM of groundwater extracted every year in the State, 13.51 BCM was used for irrigation. Some urban pockets including Chennai are also overdrawing groundwater but as industrial needs are of late being met more by surface water and desalination, agriculture remains the principal concern. Dry-season cropping is almost entirely watered by groundwater because, unlike in North India, the State receives the bulk of its rain in the winter. By the mid-2020s, 106 talukas out of 313 assessed were 'over-exploited'. There has been a gradual shift in cropping patterns: farmers in drier areas have been favouring less water-intensive crops such as millets, pulses, and maize while some others switched from sugarcane to cotton or horticulture watered by drip irrigation. But the bulk of agriculture in the State is focused on water-intensive cash crops. Thirsty cities By 2015, groundwater was the sole source of water for more than 630 urban local bodies in Uttar Pradesh. Apart from Meerut and Agra, Allahabad, Ghaziabad, Kanpur, Lucknow, Moradabad, Saharanpur, and Varanasi have been tending deeper into 'critical' or 'over-exploited' status in recent years. In Barmer, Jaisalmer, and Jodhpur of west Rajasthan, deep wells and stepwells are already overdrawn to support their growing populations. This part of the State also contains the Thar desert, which means the natural subterranean sources of water are 'fossil water': water that accumulated here when the region's climate was different from what it is today and has not been recharged over time. In the west, Ahmedabad, Surat, and Rajkot in Gujarat and Pune and Nagpur in Maharashtra are growing too fast for their groundwater reserves to keep up. While Mumbai subsists on surface reservoirs, the demand for groundwater in nearby Thane and Navi Mumbai is booming — echoing the plight of Noida and Gurugram near Delhi. Similar narratives are also playing out in Indore, Bhopal, and Dehradun. In Patna, urban sprawl and inadequate surface water distribution are the main drivers. Both Kolkata's and Nagapattinam's groundwater has become saline because over-extraction has allowed water from the Bay of Bengal to flow inward. Such seawater threatens Kochi and Visakhapatnam as well. Bengaluru's recent growth has cut ahead of its water infrastructure. All blocks in the district are 'over-exploited'. In March 2024, Indian Institute of Science researchers reported that in five decades, Bengaluru's built-up area had increased by 1,055% at the expense of 79% of its lake surface area. Many lakes that still remain are also highly polluted. The city's newer suburbs do not yet have connections to water from the Cauvery river, so they also resort to borewells. During an uncharacteristically hot passage in early 2024, it emerged that half of the city's 14,000 or so borewells were dry despite some having plunged to 450 m. Chennai is also a coastal metro like Mumbai, yet as of 2023 it was drawing 127.5% of its annual groundwater recharge. This is alarming even if it is better than the 133% in 2022. All but five of the city's 51 revenue blocks were 'over-exploited'. The amount of water in its main reservoirs remains dependent on seasonal rainfall. Among India's States, Tamil Nadu adopted mandatory rainwater harvesting early, in 2003, and has also installed many new desalination plants, yet Chennai's groundwater levels remain precarious. Hyderabad is somewhat better placed with large reservoirs and an arguably better piped network — yet groundwater levels dropped 2-7 m between 2023 and 2024 alone in parts of Greater Hyderabad. Tragedy of the commons The Green Revolution encouraged farmers to rotate crops between rice and wheat to improve India's food security in the 1960s. But even as farmers came to depend on these crops, their capital costs increased. Rice is particularly ill-suited for the region's semi-arid climate. A 2002 study from researchers at Wageningen University estimated that 'it takes 3,000-5,000 litres to produce 1 kg of rice, … about two- to three-times more than to produce 1 kg of other cereals such as wheat or maize.' Land under rice and sugarcane monocultures also consumes water throughout the year rather than being allowed to switch between water-intensive and water-sparse crops (like millets and pulses). This stress is compounded by inefficient cropping and irrigation practices. Most farmers in the country still use flood irrigation to water their fields: even if some of this water percolates into the ground, it is insufficient justification to extract it in the first place. Many farmers also steer clear of micro-irrigation options and pump more water than the crops actually need. They also lose pumped water when it 'leaks' from poorly maintained canals and watercourses, which means farmers prefer using tubewells closer to their crops even when canal water is available. They have also been reluctant to adopt less water-intensive ways to cultivate rice. Over the years, both the Union and State governments have removed economic signals to conserve water by providing subsidised electricity for agricultural use and through their procurement policies. Free or cheap power has allowed the area of land under crops to increase linearly with the number of pumps. There have even been reports of farmers in Punjab and Haryana running their pumps after their watering needs have been met just to exhaust their free power quota or to sell the water. Second, prevailing support prices and state commitments to buy rice and wheat create a perverse incentive to grow them even in areas where they are unsuitable. Governments have also as a matter of convention supported credit policies that favour irrigation development, which has mainly taken the form of pumps rather than, say, drip or sprinkler systems. In all, state economic policies have separated groundwater over-extraction from its consequences. Further, agriculture has combined with urbanisation of late to doubly stress groundwater reserves when previously only one stressor operated. As cities and towns expand, they sink more municipal wells and private boreholes into the ground. At a given depth below the surface, there is a finite and shared resource of water. If it is depleted, it is depleted for all possible users at once. The Central Ground Water Authority has notified certain 'over-exploited' blocks where new commercial wells are banned — yet enforcement at the farm-level is also rare. According to the Independent Evaluation Group of the World Bank, 'only about 14% of the overexploited blocks in the country' were notified as such in 2021. Unlike with the country's forests and aboveground water resources like rivers, community management of groundwater remains feeble. The resource is effectively at the mercy of crores of individual decisions building up to a tragedy of the commons: given the facts of drainage and cheap power, farmers often have an incentive to pump as much as they can to prevent others from 'out-pumping' them. On the flip side, wherever meaningful community-led action has arisen, groundwater over-extraction has stopped, if not turned around. In fact, community-led action is crucial because of how over-extraction affects people. As the water table recedes from the surface, the power cost of pumping water increases. Farmers need stronger pumps (to handle the higher voltage but which also pollute the air more), longer pipes, bigger loans, and higher profits. Smallholders become particularly at risk of falling in debt. The water they eventually pull up is of low quality. Such water has already been known to reduce crop yield in Punjab by 30%. Disappearing aquifers at specific strata turn perennial rivers seasonal. Trees' roots stop finding water, leading to more erosion, worse floods, and more arid land. Open land and wetlands are replaced by concrete and asphalt, causing rainwater to become surface runoff rather than refill for aquifers. Cities tax water use, leaving the poorer in the lurch. People migrate away. State economics shrink, incomes fall, and families are displaced. Even the land may buckle and subside. What to the rescue? Governments have met India's groundwater crisis with a panoply of policies, programmes, rules, and regulations to varying degrees of success. Their collective aims are to increase supply, reduce demand, and regulate consumption. Chief among them is the Union government's Atal Bhujal Yojana, a.k.a. Atal Jal. Launched in 2020 with an outlay of ₹6,000 crore over five years, the scheme focuses on building community-led groundwater management in seven target States that together contain a third of India's most water-stressed blocks (but it excludes Punjab). Access to its funds is tied to improving groundwater levels and community-led adoption of water-saving practices. By early 2023, the scheme had released around a fifth of its funds, pointing to sluggish uptake, probably due to the COVID-19 pandemic. If the scheme scales up as intended, its biggest upside will be decentralising action to improve groundwater levels. Second, the Union and State governments mooted the Jal Shakti Abhiyan in 2019. Every year, the mission identifies water-stressed districts and helps enhance rainwater harvesting, maintenance and repair of traditional water bodies and watersheds, and the forest cover there. In 2024, the mission identified 151 water-stressed districts. According to official data, the mission erected 98 lakh water-harvesting and -recharging structures across India between 2019 and 2023. Third, the Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana is a national scheme to improve water-use efficiency in agriculture. Since 2015, when it was launched, it has been facilitating subsidies for micro-irrigation and other techniques. Under the Yojana's 'Per Drop More Crop' plan, according to the Ministry of Agriculture, more than 52 lakh hectares around the country have been covered with drip and sprinkler irrigation systems. The Yojana also includes incentives to replace areas under paddy with maize and pulses, plus purchase commitments. In the same vein, Haryana's 'Mera Pani Meri Virasat' scheme pays farmers ₹2,800 per hectare to switch from paddy to other crops in water-stressed blocks. According to State data, some 23,000 hectares in Haryana were diversified in 2022-2023 with this incentive. The Punjab State Power Corporation, Ltd. has also launched the 'Pani Bachao, Paisa Kamao' scheme whereby it directly rewards farmers who consume less power. In parallel, the CGWB has been mapping the country's aquifers. By 2023, it had covered 25 lakh sq. km with information about their depth and spread, volumes, and quality characteristics. The Board's 2020 Master Plan for Artificial Recharge included a roadmap to install 1.4 crore structures to harness 185 BCM of rainwater across the country. In its current phase, the mapping exercise is focusing on developing solutions for areas classified as 'over-exploited' and/or where the groundwater quality is poor. Finally, regulations. In 2020, the Union government revised its guidelines to tighten norms surrounding groundwater extraction for industrial and infrastructural use, especially in 'over-exploited' areas. They required industries, urban utilities, and large housing projects to receive 'no objection certificates' only if they also met conditions to harvest rainwater and restore groundwater. Bylaws in Chennai and Mumbai require all large buildings to have rainwater harvesting structures and functional recharge pits. With help from NGOs, Pune has mapped its aquifers to control groundwater extraction at the neighborhood level. To bolster State-level enforcement, Raj Bhushan Choudhary, the Union Minister of State for Jal Shakti, said in 2024 that the Ministry had circulated a 'model Bill to all the States/UTs to enable them to enact suitable groundwater legislation for regulation of its development, which also includes provision of rainwater harvesting. So far, 21 States/UTs have adopted and implemented the groundwater legislation, including the northern states of Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, Bihar and Himachal Pradesh'. In Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Maharashtra, new wells need to be registered with the respective State government. In Gujarat, the Jyotigram Yojana aims to provide 24-hour, three-phase power supply to rural areas — and simultaneously limits the hours of supply to water pumps. Haryana, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Telangana also have State-level schemes that promote community-led restoration of water tanks to save more rainwater and mitigate surface runoff.
