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Indian Express
28-05-2025
- General
- Indian Express
Writer's Corner: Anirudh Kanisetti's latest sheds light on how Chola empire's women and village assemblies shaped history
Around the turn of the previous millennium, in the wake of the decline of the Pallavas and the collapse of the Rashtrakutas, a new power had arisen in the lands watered by the Kaveri. The Cholas would go from strength to strength, their influence felt far up the eastern coasts and across the seas in Southeast Asia. As the Cholas declined in their latter days, new social and cultural trends arose amid the political changes. It is this diverse history that historian Anirudh Kanisetti tackles in his latest book, Lords of Earth and Sea: A History of the Chola Empire. Kanisetti first explored the history of the Cholas as part of his previous work, Lords of the Deccan, before devoting an entire book to the dynasty's history. Speaking to The Indian Express, he said, 'I became aware that my perspective was a very Deccan perspective. That's not all they were… They were an empire of the crossroads. They ruled over a large chunk of the East Coast, were connected to Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. They were also well-connected to South Karnataka. I wanted to supplement this with the latest scholarship.' He added, 'While a lot of actors and politicians have been speaking of the Cholas of late, I wanted to present a history extensively steeped in the primary source. The Cholas were remarkable for their extensive inscriptions on temple walls. Simply absorbing that immense mass of material was quite a challenge. Across medieval Tamil Nadu, for all donors, there was a tendency to make inscriptions when a gift was made. This allows us to read deeply into the social history of this region… How temple donation practices and socioeconomic systems changed over centuries.' Apart from the help rendered by existing translations of Chola inscriptions and the latest research on them, Kanisetti's fieldwork also involved visiting Chola temple sites in Tamil Nadu and South Karnataka. The border region in South Karnataka, known as Gangavadi, was ruled by the Cholas after being captured by Raja Raja Chola. Recent archaeological discoveries were also of value. Kanisetti recalled, 'There have been very interesting findings at the Chola Palace in Gangaikonda Cholapuram (the Chola capital built by Emperor Rajendra I) besides the presence in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. To understand the Cholas, you must not look just at literary claims but also the hard evidence. Archaeologists working in Anuradhapura (in Sri Lanka) and Sumatra have really transformed our understanding of how the Chola world operated. On the Chola footprint in South Karnataka, he noted that it had manifested in multilingualism by way of the presence of the Tamil language, such as in temple inscriptions. Their presence was also felt in architecture, such as at the Kolaramma Temple where Chola officials and rulers had made proclamations. He added that the Begur Temple also had a shivalingam known as the 'Choleswara', possibly after a Chola general. An interesting topic covered in the book is that of Chola queens such as Sembiyan Mahadevi as well as those women who did not have similar means. Kanisetti said, 'The popular understanding does not do justice. They were primarily seen as pious women. Quite a lot of scholarship and inscriptions shows that these women also had very intelligent political minds and were sophisticated patrons of art and architecture. It was evident while looking at the history of temple bronzes and patronage that, in a lot of ways, women were the pioneers.' Kanisetti also noted that space in history ought to be given to those women smaller in stature than the queens, such as temple donors and politicians of various social classes, and those who did not leave as deep a mark on the historical record. He added that it was an eye-opener as to how often people who might be considered less important had influenced Tamil devotional culture. 'Many of the famous gopurams (towers) that you see across temples were actually commissioned as the empire was declining. They were commissioned by generals and aristocrats who were attempting to break away from Chola authority. Their wives and children made gifts to these sites. The way that Tamil temples developed into sprawling compounds was really a development of the late Chola period.' In his book, Kanisetti also highlights the role that village assemblies played, noting that often even Chola kings and princes took efforts to stay in their good graces. He noted that assemblies of cultivators such as the 'Shining Plough' would often take their own decisions on taxation without consulting royal officers. He said, 'The voices of the smaller people insisted on being heard and leaving a mark on the historical record… It really opened my eyes to the fact that medieval India was vast and politically diverse. These were intelligent people capable of holding their rulers to account and taking their own decisions. In a way, it makes you appreciate how deep India's democratic roots go.'
India Today
22-05-2025
- General
- India Today
How Rajendra I Chola became ruler of the seas and led an expedition to far East
TS Rajendra was a Navy training ship commissioned on April 2, 1972. This legendary vessel was named after Rajendra I Chola the Great, who conquered parts of Southeast Asia during the early mediaeval period. It was under his reign that Indian culture travelled to the distant shores of Southeast conquered regions of present-day Indonesia, Myanmar, Vietnam, Sri Lanka, Maldives, Thailand, Singapore, Cambodia, and the Nicobar Islands. At its height, the Chola Empire commanded vast maritime Chola ruled for 30 years, from 1014 CE to 1044 CE, and is often referred to as Rajendra Chola the Great. Throughout history, we have heard of kings who ruled vast territories -- Alexander the Great, for example, who dominated Europe and the Middle East. Similarly, the Roman Empire left a lasting legacy, having governed all of Europe and parts of Rajendra I Chola, the Chola Empire's trade boundaries extended as far as Song China, and this was facilitated through connections with the Khmer Empire who are renowned for constructing the largest Hindu temple, Angkor famous expedition of Rajendra I Chola to Srivijaya (present-day Indonesia) forever changed the political and cultural influence of the empire far in the Cholas also had trade links with the Arab world and Africa, establishing a far-reaching commercial Cholas were not only known as skilled warriors and capable administrators, but were also accomplished builders. One notable achievement is the construction of Brihadeeswarar Temple at Thanjavur, built by Rajaraja I Chola, father of Rajendra I, in 1010 its height, the temple became one of the wealthiest in the region. It also served as an administrative centre, supporting activities related to social welfare and public SR Balasubrahmanyam records that Rajaraja gifted over 38,000 gold coins -- more than many European courts of the time. Alongside jewels and silver seized from defeated rivals, his offerings totalled nearly 95,500 gold coins. Chola empire under Rajendra I (Image: Wikimedia Commons) RISE OF THE CHOLASIndian history records two Chola dynasties from Southern India -- one as early as the 2nd and 3rd centuries BCE, and the other, the Imperial Cholas, to which Rajendra I belonged. The latter dynasty was based in Thanjavur and rose to power after defeating the Pallavas. Founded by Vijayalaya Chola, historians debate the lineage connection between the early and later Sailendra Nath Sen writes in Ancient Indian History and Civilisation, 'Vijayalaya, a descendant of the Early Cholas, reestablished (or founded) the Chola empire in 848 CE.'Around 850 CE, Vijayalaya Chola, seized Thanjavur from the Muttarayars during a conflict between the Pandyas and Pallavas, laying the foundation for the Imperial Chola Aditya I, the Cholas allied with the Pallavas to defeat the Pandyas in 885 CE and expanded into the Kannada the later years, the Cholas fought not only the southern powers but a major land-dominant dynasty, Rashtrkutas who ruled in ancient and mediaeval William Dalrymple notes in The Golden Road, 'The Chola dynasty grew to become the most powerful of all South Indian empires after defeating their rivals -- the Pallavas, their one-time overlords.'The Chola control over the entire southern coastline is remembered today in the Tamil term for the eastern coast -- Coromandel, which is a corruption of Cholamandala, meaning "Circle of Chola Rule."An eleventh-century Chinese bureaucrat offered a vivid glimpse into the grandeur of the Chola empire, writing:"The crown of the [Chola]" ruler is decorated with luminous pearls and rare precious stones. He is often at war with various kingdoms of Western Heaven [India]. The kingdom has sixty thousand war elephants. There are almost 10,000 female servants, 3,000 of whom alternate every day to serve at the court."advertisementThis account reflects not only the wealth and opulence of the Chola court but also the vast military strength and intricate administrative sophistication of one of South India's most powerful empires. Shiva as the lord of dance, Chola dynasty (Image: Wikimedia Commons) Verily, it was during the reign of Rajaraja Chola I that the venerable image of Nataraja -- Shiva as the cosmic dancer -- was drawn forth from the mists of sacred devotion and placed squarely at the heart of the Chola vision of divine the origins of this form lay in the fervent Tamil bhakti of earlier centuries, it was under Rajaraja's discerning furtherance that Natraja Shiva assumed new I CHOLA THE GREATRajendra Chola I rose to the throne in 1014 CE, after the death of Rajaraja I Chola. Even though nominated heir in 1012, it was only with Rajaraja's death that Rajendra finally came into his own as the chief force behind the Chola Empire's emergence as a power who ruled south-east Asia for the early 11th century, Rajendra Chola wanted to expand as well as legitimise his rule with bold and unorthodox tactics. He invested his sons with regalia taken from conquered enemies, naming them as "Chola Lord of Lanka" and "Chola-Pandya" to establish Chola his most dramatic action was the pursuit of a digvijaya -- a victory of the directions, aimed not just to add more territory to his empire, but to announce himself as universal emperor, with authority emanating to all points of the known world. Rajndra I Chola in Battle (Image: Wikimedia Commons) To an extent, it could be said that it was Rajaraja I who directed the Chola forces to penetrate into land to far east which not only covered land but mighty ocean first started to set about securing his grip on Sri Lanka, which in some parts had been conquered during Rajaraja I, completing a campaign begun by his father. He took King Mahinda 5 captive and subjugated the whole island to Chola power for the first initial military effectiveness and martial qualities of Rajendra I Chola were honed by campaigns against the Western Chalukyas and the kingdom of Anuradhapura, in addition to crushing rebellions in the regions of Chera and achievements of these regions not only consolidated the empire's southern border but also cemented Rajendra's status as a strategist who mastered I Chola expanded the influence of the empire by conquering Kalinga and Vengi and then defeated the Palas of Bengal, after which he was titled Gangaikonda Cholan, or "The Chola who conquered the Ganges".To mark the triumph, he established Gangaikondacholapuram, an imperial new capital which was a trade centre, administrative centre, and hub of cultural far from the Indian mainland, Rajendra gained control over Laccadive or Lakshdweep and the Maldives, which were the key islands on Indian Ocean trade routes connecting the Arab and African I CHOLA'S SEA EXPEDITIONS TO THE EASTHaving the ambition to establish dominance over the seas, Rajendra I led campaigns years after his accession to the throne, reaching the Far East, including Sumatra and other nearby empires. Seal of Rajendra I Chola found in far east (Image: Wikimedia commons) The first to be hit was Srivijaya (present-day Indonesia and Sumatra), which held a major point on the sea route to Majumdar writes in the overseas expedition of Rajendra Chola: "The attacks by one of the alliances of the Cholas on Sri Vijaya, the Khmer Empire under Suryavarman I, allowed Rajendra I to cross the seas and help Suryavarman.""As both the Khmer and the Cholas were Hindu kingdoms, their alliance was predominant. To counter this, Tambralinga of the Malay Peninsula turned to Srivijaya, whose rulers were Buddhists. Thus, it was set in motion a series of hostilities that culminated in the famed Chola naval expedition against Srivijaya," he writes campaign conquered parts of the Srivijaya empire, including regions such as Kedah, Tambralinga, and Pegu, extending Chola influence deep into Southeast the campaign, the Cholas sacked the capitals Kadaram and Pannai on Sumatra, and Malaiyur on the Malay Chola invasion did not only mark a military victory, but also the extensive proliferation of Tamil commercial activities beyond the seas of the east. Merchant guilds of ancient prestige -- like the Manigramam, the brave Ayyavole, and the famous Ainnurruvar -- did venture far into the vibrant ports of South-East for the greater part of a century to come, the business of trade and commerce in those far-off lands came to be directed, indeed controlled, by the hardworking hands of Tamil influence of this lasted for centuries, and records also show that a later branch of the Cholas ruled parts of Southeast Asia until the 16th century and contributed largely to the region's history. Charter issued by Rajendra I Chola (Image: Wikimedia Commons) It was then, under Rajendra I Chola, that the Tamil diaspora turned hand to an extensive expansion. Tamil temples began to appear along China's shores and across Southeast findings -- Tamil inscriptions, trade artifacts, and even adornments like a wedding necklace on an Arab or Indonesian bride of a Tamil trader -- testify to the rich cross-cultural exchange of these language of the Sumatran Karo tribe still carries dozens of Tamil loanwords -- a living testimony to the global influence of the Chola was the dominance of Rajendra I Chola on land and seas that made him The Great Rajendra I Chola, and it was his naval expedition that connected the Far East with southern India and established the exchange of trade and culture for Watch
India.com
21-05-2025
- General
- India.com
How Chennai City Got Its Name: The Fascinating History Behind It
Chennai, the capital of Tamil Nadu and one of India's major metropolitan regions, is a vibrant fusion of culture, history, and modernity. It has a self-contained identity serving its economic importance and rich traditions which makes it unique. But do you know how did the city get its name? How the story of the name 'Chennai' came to be is a remarkable tale of history, cultures, and colonial influences. Let us examine the evolution of the iconic city's name and the history it encompasses. The Ancient Roots of Chennai Chennai was a prominent region in ancient Tamilakam, which was known as the land of Tamils, making it one of the most comprehensively populated deep-seated civilizations. The area had numerous small villages scattered all over along with temples and trading posts. It was during the rule of the Pallavas which started from 3rd century CE to 9th century that the region began receiving substantial attention. And even today remains known for its architectural art, as the pallavas had a robust influence over art and architecture. The region was also recognized for its flourishing commerce activities. The ancient port of Mylapore, today a locality in Chennai, served as an important hub of trade and multicultural settlement. There is a belief that the emissary St. Thomas came to Mylapore in the first century CE, which adds to the significance of the region. 'The Name Of Chennai', A Link To The Place Chennai is a style that stemmed from local peoples, particularly from the Tamil language. The name is said to have come from a Telugu chieftain, Damarla Chennappa Nayakudu, who served under the Vijayanagara Empire. The Vijayanagara Empire maintained control of the area, whilst M Chennappa Nayakudu was a very important person in the region during the 16th century. As per Chennappa Nayakudu, the British East India Company was granted a parcel of land in the year 1639 which eventually became the site for the construction of the first British fort in India, Fort St. George. The British gradually built up the area around the fort and established a settlement which they named 'Chennapatnam' after Chennappa Nayakudu. This further shortened to 'Chennai' over the years. Another theory suggests that the name 'Chennai' originates from the Tamil word 'Chennaiyar' that refers to the Kesava Perumal Temple erected in honor of Lord Vishnu. This temple which is now in Pudupet was previously a prominent landmark and gave its name to the region. The Colonial Influence: Madras While 'Chennai' is a name derived from local dialects, it was largely known as 'Madras' for a large part of history. The name 'Madras' is said to have been used by the British during their reign, but it is still unknown how they came to choose that name. One theory traces the roots of the word 'Madras' to a fishing village called Madraspatnam, situated north of Fort St. George. The claim is that British settlers named the village after the settlement they built. Another theory claims the name derives from the Portuguese word 'Madre de Deus', as the region had a church dedicated to the Holy Virgin, and the Portuguese might have referred to the area as 'Mother of God' before British rule. Gradually, it could have been transformed to 'Madras'. During British rule, Madras transformed into an important administrative and economic hub. What is now edonese the British referred to the city as Madras and let it remain the official city name until 1996. The Transformation of Chennai In 1996, the Government of Tamil Nadu officially altered the name of the city from Madras to Chennai. This was done after the government took steps to remove colonial influences by restoring original names. The name change was widely accepted as 'Chennai' was more relevant to the region's culture and history. The change of name of the city was more than just an attempt to erase the past. It was an affirmation of Tamil culture and pride. Chennai as a name reflects the city's ancient roots and its connection to the land and across the seas. It also captured the new moment of its history: the acceptance of the city's past whilst moving into the future. Chennai Today: A City of Many Names Chennai is a city of India which is proud of its history and history. However, it is and will remain a city of paradoxes. Ancient temples share the skyline with modern skyscrapers, traditional art forms thrive alongside contemporary art and culture. The name 'Chennai' evokes rich heritage alongside the journey through time. Chennai has always been a city of significance. First, it was a small settlement and over the years, it transformed into a bustling city. It has become a thriving metropolis. The narrative of the city both as Chennai and Madras embodies resilience, adaptation, and growth. The city continues to evolve and so does the story of its name. But one thing is for sure, Chennai has an enduring spirit and a deep connection to the land and its people. To sum up, the tale of Chennai's origin is captivating, be it from a historical or a cultural perspective. This story depicts the city's evolution over the years and the numerous forces that have impacted the city. Regardless of whether you refer to it as Madras or Chennai, the name of this wonderful city bears testimony to its history and prospects ahead.
Indian Express
02-05-2025
- Entertainment
- Indian Express
As NCERT cuts out Mughals from Class 7 history books, R Madhavan asks why only 1 chapter on Cholas, Pandyas: ‘They ruled for 2400 years'
R Madhavan, who recently played a fictional character in Karan Singh Tyagi's film Kesari Chapter 2, also starring Akshay Kumar, said that he will 'probably get into trouble' for raising objection about history syllabus being taught in Indian schools. The actor said during his younger days, there was more study material on Mughals, than the Cholas and Pallavas. His comments come in the midst of the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)'s decision to remove major portions about the Delhi Sultanate, ruled by many dynasties including the Mamluks, Tughlaqs, Khaljis and Lodis, and the Mughal empire from the Class 7 history textbook. Along with these cuts, portions about social movements in contemporary India and caste system have also seen deep cuts. The new additions in the textbooks include new content in textbooks include government initiatives such as Make in India, Beti Bachao Beti Padhao, and how land becomes sacred through pilgrimages such as the Char Dham Yatra, visits to Shakti Pithas and Jyotirlingas. 'I might get into trouble for saying this, but I'll still say it. When I studied history in school, there were eight chapters on the Mughals, two on the Harappa and Mohenjo-daro civilizations, four on British rule and the freedom struggle, and just one chapter on the southern kingdoms — the Cholas, Pandyas, Pallavas, and Cheras,' he said and compared the timelines for each period. 'The British and the Mughals ruled us for close to 800 years, but the Chola Empire is 2,400 years old,' he claimed. Cholas ruled from the seventh century to the thirteenth century, which is approximately 500 years, Britishers ruled in India for almost 200 years and Mughals were present in the sub-continent for around 300 years. He said, 'They were pioneers of sea travel and naval power. They had spice routes that extended to Rome. Where's that part of our history? Where's the mention of us building temples all the way to Angkor Wat with our mighty naval forces? Jainism, Buddhism, and Hinduism spread to China. People in Korea speak half Tamil because that's how far our language reached. And we encapsulated all of this in just one chapter.' He then criticised the history syllabus in schools and claimed that even though Tamil is the oldest language in the world, nobody knows about this. 'Whose narrative is this? Who decided the syllabus? Tamil is the oldest language in the world, but nobody knows about it. The scientific knowledge hidden in our culture is being mocked right now,' he said. He also said that Britishers created a 'false narrative' of the Jallianwala Bagh massacre. Madhavan claimed that the Britishers' version of history apparently 'teaches us' that ' humne Jallianwala Bagh mein badmaashi kiye honge (we must have done something wrong at Jallianwala Bagh).' The massacre, which happened in 1919, had General Reginal Dyer shooting at thousands of Indians that resulted in their death. The film, Kesari 2, is set after the massacre and fictionalises the events that happened afterwards, even though it's based on a book titled 'The Case That Shook the Empire'. Madhavan told News 18 Showsha, 'General Dyer and his granddaughter said we were a set of terrorists and looters who deserved to be shot. He stopped shooting because he ran out of bullets. How can you whitewash history to such an extent that you create a false narrative? Many of us may believe that humne Jallianwala Bagh mein badmaashi kiye honge (we must have done something wrong at Jallianwala Bagh) because that's what their version of history teaches us. Going back to what I said, I shouldn't be getting into trouble for this, because it's a fact.' He said that the makers should not be blamed for 'taking small liberties' to 'set things right', and also claimed that they have not changed the narrative. 'If we have to set things right, don't blame us for taking small liberties. Tell us only if we've changed the narrative. Blame us only if we come up with an outcome that isn't true to history. Don't blame us for bringing the truth about history. The easiest way to discredit us is by saying that we took liberties,' he said. In the film, C Sankaran Nair is fighting against General Dyer at a court in Amritsar, and Madhavan's character is speaking in favour of the Empire. As per Sankaran Nair's autobiography, he fought against Michael O'Dwyer at a London court because he believed that O'Dwyer was to be held equally for Jallianwala Bagh massacre. Film's director Tyagi recently described the film as a 'synthesis of history and fiction' in a chat with Bollywood Hungama.
