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NDTV
28 minutes ago
- Politics
- NDTV
How Cholas Laid The Groundwork For Microlocal Governance In Southeast Asia
The Chola Dynasty, which has often been relegated to cognitive oblivion, is back in the news. The debate on whether this resurrected focus is merely political or has some substantive value for historiographers is bound to stay. Nevertheless, its return to public discourse begs an analysis of whether - and to what extent - the Cholas truly deserve the credit of being the pioneers of democracy in South Asia and Southeast Asia. A Dense Historiography Public discussions around emotively volatile issues, like the one at hand, often undermine the fact that political and electoral rhetoric piggybacks - and even tends to conceal - on historiography painstakingly built by scholars whose names are overshadowed in ideological cacophony. A wide array of scholarship has examined the political, economic, and cultural dimensions of the Chola Empire. These include K.A.N. Sastri's The Colas (1935-37) and A History of South India from Prehistoric Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar (1955) to R. Champakalakshmi's Trade Ideology and Urbanization in South India 300 BC to AD 1300 (1996) and R. Chakravarti's well-regarded lecture, 'The Pull of the Coast' (2011). These have been handsomely complemented by K.R. Srinivasan's Temples of South India (1972), Y. Subbarayulu's The Political Geography of the Chola Country (1973), B.D. Chattopadhyaya's Coins and Currency Systems in South India (1977), Jonathan Heitzman's Gifts of Power: Lordship in an Early Indian State (1997), Hermann Kulke's The Naval Expeditions of the Cholas in the Context of Asian History (2010), V. Sakhuja and S. Sakhuja's Rajendra Chola I's Expedition to Southeast Asia: A Nautical Perspective (2010), T. Sen's The Military Campaigns of Rajendra Chola and the Chola-Sri Vijaya-China Triangle (2010), and Rakesh Mahalakshmi's more recent, and highly instructive essay Chola (Cola) Empire, in the edited collection, The Encyclopedia of Empire (2016; edited by John M. MacKenzie). Unprecedented Territorial Expansion The Cholas ruled roughly between 850 and 1280 AD. They reigned over South India, present-day Sri Lanka, and coastal Southeast Asia. Under the reigns of Raja Raja I (985-1014 AD) and Rajendra I (1012-1044 AD), the Chola Empire charted an unprecedented territorial expanse, hitherto virtually unknown in India; from Bengal to the Malay Peninsula, as the saying goes. As has been argued on the basis of strong Vedic and Puranic scholarship, during the rule of Raja Raja I, the supposed location of the preeminent Ram Setu was possibly shifted from Korkai Harbour to its currently recognised location, at Adam's Bridge, to mark a ceremonial march by the ruler on the putative footsteps of Lord Ram. Further, the Chola polity's capital, Gangaikonda Cholapuram, established by Rajendra I in 1025 AD, whose name literally signified the city of the Chola(s) who had conquered the Ganga, was itself an extraordinary feat of public communication and political symbolism, arbitrated through urban planning and monumental architecture. It also signifies, then, that, at its peak, the Chola polity was structured as a highly centralised bureaucratic and military state. Nevertheless, there were several exceptions to this aura of the Cholas' governance. By the late tenth century, the Cholas had established an elaborate revenue and administrative apparatus. There were tentatively two broad classes of officials under the Chola regime, including proto‐bureaucratic elites (who wielded local influence) and state‐appointed bureaucrats ("nam karumam arayum", meaning, "those following the king's orders") who conducted state affairs. According to the pathbreaking research of Sastri back in the 1930s, at the apex of this hierarchy stood the 'vellala' (or the landowning elites) and Brahmin officials, bearing royal sobriquets like Muvendavelan and Brahmarayan. These appointments point to a governance model based on pedigrees determined by nobility and titles, whereby political and administrative power was consolidated in the hands of chosen kinships and elites who sided with royal authority. Blazing The Trail For Participatory Governance All the same, Chola models of governance played a significant role in opening up a participatory democratic structure within local contexts. For instance, every Chola 'nadu' (locality of peasants) and 'ur' (village or rural township) possessed assemblies, known as 'nattar' and 'sabha', constituted by local elites and Brahminical settlers. Chola inscriptions have left records of the method of elections of these assemblies ('kudavolai'), with nominations drawn from 30 wards ('kudumbus') culminating in a lottery-based selection. It is this electoral model that is likely hailed by some modern commentators as an early form of Indian democratic practice. Nonetheless, such assemblies functioned within strict parameters of centralised policies. The supervisory presence of state‐appointed nadu officials - such as the 'naduvagai ceyvar' (accountant) and 'kankani nayakam' (overseer of land transactions) - ensured that royal frameworks influenced local governance structures. During the later Chola period, the emergence of the 'madhyasta' office (meant for arbitration) can be seen as evidence of an increasing need for mediation, likely arising out of tensions between community-based decisions and centralised demands of state revenue extraction. This may be, in modern-day terms, somewhat loosely analogised to federal functioning crises. The Cholas are generally credited by historians for institutionalising temples as economic factors, alongside religion. Temple sabhas mirrored village assemblies. Their 'variyams' (specialised committees) oversaw the upkeep of tanks, stores, and treasury. Though ecclesiastical in origin, temple bodies managed land leases and grants, craft productions, and redistribution of deeds and gifts, testifying to the Chola penchant for integrating religion with administrative infrastructure. While fostering participatory governance, this ecclesiastical infrastructure also strengthened royally sanctioned hierarchical social structures, as temple nobles - often Brahminical elites - were seen to exercise control over agricultural and craft resources. This is all the more crucial since, by the tenth century, the Chola state's agrarian and fiscal policies had acquired great complexity, comprising a taxonomy of land classifications - one‐crop, two‐crop, wet, dry, and improved lands - subject to specific revenues. Local dues ('vettinai') required peasants to perform irrigation and maintenance work, which meant that fiscal obligations were enforced through communal labour rather than individual taxation. While such systems could be seen today as negotiated norms between state and society, they may not necessarily stand the test of modern-day standards of consent‐based taxation expected of democratic societies. An Early Blueprint For Panchayti Raj Institutions Even so, it would be an exaggeration to find fault with the celebration of the Cholas as pioneers of democracy. Mahalakshmi, for instance, invokes, "the office of the nadalvan, one who governs the nadu or region, appears to be conspicuous in the last stage of Chola rule, leading us to the conclusion that community-centric decision making had given way to individuals exercising power", especially the early thirteenth century onwards. But, if the revival of the Cholas' importance is seen in the spirit of an overdue recognition, their conceptualisation of structured village assemblies and lottery-based committee selections can carve a genealogy for postcolonial India's Panchayati Raj institutions. Strong evidence from archaeology - a discipline that gets a lot of flak in recent times for driving state-based narratives - also buttresses the existence of 'kudavolai'-type lotteries during the Chola reign. These nuances indeed support an emotionally persuasive narrative of microlocal governance in medieval India. Whether we call them experiments in local governance under the aegis of imperial frameworks or embryonic democratic models that were overshadowed by the colonial prowess of the Cholas, well-meaning commentators should observe caution lest they deprive Indians of this legitimate chance to cherish the legacy of a magnificent antiquity. One wonders, though, now that the Cholas of Tamil Nadu are back in the news, is it time for the Pala Dynasty of Bengal, who, too, have faced similar periods of oblivion in public memory, to be resurrected, too? [Arup K. Chatterjee is the author of 'The Great Indian Railways' (2017, 2019), 'Indians in London' (2021), and 'Adam's Bridge' (2024)]
Indian Express
2 days ago
- General
- Indian Express
Daily subject-wise static quiz: History and Culture MCQs on the Chola dynasty, Travellers in Indian history, Folk dance and more (Week 119)
Are you preparing for UPSC CSE Prelims? UPSC Essentials brings to you its initiative of daily subject-wise quizzes. These quizzes are designed to help you revise some of the most important topics from the static part of the syllabus. Attempt today's subject quiz on History and Culture to check your progress. 🚨 Click Here to read the UPSC Essentials magazine for July 2025. Share your views and suggestions in the comment box or at Which of the following parts of a temple structure is not correctly matched? (a) entry hall : mukhamaṇḍapa (b) pillared hall : ardhamaṇḍapa (c) vestibule : gopuram (d) sanctum : garbhagṛha A standard Chola temple was configured along an east-west axis, consisting of an entry hall (mukhamaṇḍapa), a pillared hall (ardhamaṇḍapa), a vestibule (antarāl̥a), and a sanctum (garbhagṛha) sheltered by a Tamil Draviḍa–style superstructure. Therefore, c is the correct answer. (For more, refer:Why Chola architecture represents a high watermark in the evolution of temple by Ajeya Vajpayee, UPSC Essentials, The Indian Express) Which Chola King returned with the water of the Ganga to sanctify and commemorate his victory at a new capital in his homeland, called Gangaikondacholapuram, after his successful campaign in the north? (a) Rajaraja I (b) Rajaraja II (c) Rajendra I (d) Rajendra II Rājarāja's heir, Rajendra I, after his successful campaign in the north, returned with the water of the Ganga to sanctify and commemorate his victory at a new capital in his homeland, called Gangaikoṇḍacōl̥apuram ('City of the Chola who conquered the Ganges'). Therefore, c is the correct answer. (For more, refer:Why Chola architecture represents a high watermark in the evolution of temple by Ajeya Vajpayee, UPSC Essentials, The Indian Express) With reference to 'Kudavolai system' consider the following statements: 1. It is an ancient taxation system. 2. The system finds its mention in the Uttaramerur Inscriptions. Which of the above given statements is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 As chronicled by K A Nilakanta Sastri in The Cholas (1935), the Chola administrative framework was built on two foundational units: the Sabha for Brahmin settlements and the Ur for non-Brahmin villages. These were not symbolic councils but elected bodies with real powers over revenue, irrigation, temple management, and even justice. 'It was democracy at the grassroots — built into the fabric of Tamil civic life,' Sastri wrote in Chapter VIII, 'Local Self-Government'. But what made the system particularly striking was the method of voting, a process called the Kudavolai system or 'ballot pot' election. Under this method, as detailed in the Uttaramerur Inscriptions documented in Epigraphia Indica Vol. XXII (1933–34), the names of eligible candidates were inscribed on palm leaves and placed inside a pot. A young boy, typically chosen for his impartiality, would draw the lot in full public view. This randomised draw was not a game of chance but a civic ritual rooted in transparency, fairness, and collective consent. Therefore, b is the correct answer. (For more, refer: Long before Magna Carta, Cholas had 'ballot pots': What is the ancient voting system PM Modi lauded? by Arun Janardhanan, The Indian Express) Manigramam and Ayyavole in the history of South India are closely related to: (a) Martial art (b) Classical music (c) Merchant guilds (d) None of the above Anirudh Kanisetti notes in Lords of the Earth and Sea (Penguin, 2023): the Chola model of statecraft relied heavily on decentralised administrative systems. By empowering merchant guilds such as the Manigramam and Ayyavole, and sustaining local assemblies, the Cholas expanded both trade and legitimacy. Therefore, c is the correct answer. (For more, refer: Long before Magna Carta, Cholas had 'ballot pots': What is the ancient voting system PM Modi lauded? by Arun Janardhanan, The Indian Express) Consider the following statements: 1. Barahmasa, a poetic tradition that emerged in medieval South India, lent itself to other forms such as paintings, which were patronised by the Vijayanagar Empire. 2. Meghaduta, the classical sanskrit poem, tells the story of a yaksha who longs for his wife and uses a cloud as a messenger. Which of the above given statements is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Kalidasa's Meghaduta The classical Sanskrit poem, Meghaduta, by Kalidasa has lent itself as a theme to artists painting the monsoon. The poem tells the story of a yaksha who longs for his wife and uses a cloud as a messenger. Barahmasa painting The Barahmasa is a poetic tradition that emerged in medieval North India. It usually revolved around the theme of a woman longing for her lover, and described her emotional state in context of the season of the year. The Barahmasa, as the name suggests, refers to the '12 months'. With time, the genre lent itself to other forms of art, including dance, music and paintings. The Barahmasa paintings began developing during the Mughal rule and were at their peak during the 18th and 19th centuries. Among these paintings, the ones depicting the monsoon months are known to be the most evocative, with passionate rendering of colours and textures to show young lovers staring at clouds, or the lush countryside. Therefore, b is the correct answer. (For more, refer:Painting the rain: How Indian art obsesses with the monsoons by Adrija Roychowdhury, The Indian Express) Consider the following states of India: 1. Arunachal Pradesh 2. Meghalaya 3. Nagaland 4. Mizoram 5. Manipur 6. Sikkim 7. Tripura Which of the above states were part of colonial Assam before Independence? (a) 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6 only (b) 1, 2, 3 and 4 only (c) 2, 3, 4, 5 and 7 only (d) All of the above The Northeast Northeast India officially comprises eights states — Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim, and Tripura — which are a part of the North-Eastern Council, a statutory advisory body that plays a role in development planning, and region-level policy making. Pre-Independence, five of these eight present-day states (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Mizoram) were a part of colonial Assam. Manipur and Tripura were princely states, with resident British political officers answering to the governor of Assam. Sikkim, the most unique of the eight, was juridically independent but under British paramountcy. It became an independent country in 1947, before being annexed by India in 1975. In 2001 Sikkim was made a member of the North Eastern Council, and thus officially a part of the Northeast. Therefore, b is the correct answer. (For more, refer: How the Northeast was 'invented', 52 years ago by Sanjib Baruah, The Indian Express) With reference to the travellers in Indian history, consider the following statements: 1. Italian traveller, Pietro Della Valle visited India during the reign of Krishnadevaraya. 2. Moroccan traveler, Ibn Battuta visited India during the reign of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq. Which of the statements given up is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Pietro Della Valle visited Gujarat in 1623, during the reign of Mughal emperor Jahangir. Della Valle remained in Surat for about 40 days and received the utmost kindness and civility from the Presidents of both the English and Dutch factories. He was impressed by the equality enjoyed by all Mughal subjects in the town and the liberty they had to pursue their normal avocations and to amass wealth. He describes the famous Gopi Talav, which was built by the Hindu Governor of Surat during the reign of Sultan Muzaffar II from 1511 to 1527. He refers to it as a 'very large tank' that is surrounded by stonework and features numerous sides and angles. There are stairs leading down to the water's surface. The diameter of the tank is stated to be two good furlongs. Such reservoirs were commonly constructed by rulers or wealthy individuals for the public's benefit due to the scarcity of running water, as many towns relied solely on rainwater collected in these large tanks. Therefore, b is the correct answer. (For more, refer: 17th-century Gujarat through eyes of an Italian traveller by Amarjit Singh, The Indian Express ) With reference to Laho, consider the following statements: 1. Laho is a folk dance of Meghalaya's Jaintia hill region. 2. It is famous among the Pnar tribal community and an integral part of the Behdienkhlam festival. Which of the above given statements is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Laho Laho hails from the cool, green Meghalaya's Jaintia hill region. It is an integral part of the Behdienkhlam festival, which is held annually to invoke divine blessings and to get rid of bad spirits. It is famous among the Pnar tribal community in Meghalaya. The synchronisation and harmony of the dance are noteworthy. Instead of musical instruments, a man recites couplets during the performance. Both men and women take part in the dance and wear colourful costumes and jewellery. This folk dance is also popular among the Harp tribe of the state but is called a different name, Wangala Dance. Therefore, c is the correct answer. (For more, refer: International Dance Day 2023– Here are 5 lesser-known folk dance forms of India, The Indian Express) Subscribe to our UPSC newsletter and stay updated with the news cues from the past week. Stay updated with the latest UPSC articles by joining our Telegram channel – IndianExpress UPSC Hub, and follow us on Instagram and X. Manas Srivastava is currently working as Senior Copy Editor with The Indian Express (digital) and leads a unique initiative of IE - UPSC Essentials. He majorly writes on UPSC, other competitive exams and education-related projects. In the past, Manas has represented India at the G-20 Youth Summit in Mexico. He is a former member of the Youth Council, GOI. A two-time topper/gold medallist in History (both in graduation and post-graduation) from Delhi University, he has mentored and taught UPSC aspirants for more than five years. His diverse role in The Indian Express consists of writing, editing, anchoring/ hosting, interviewing experts, and curating and simplifying news for the benefit of students. He hosts the YouTube talk show called 'Art and Culture with Devdutt Pattanaik' and a LIVE series on Instagram and YouTube called 'LIVE with Manas'.His talks on 'How to read a newspaper' focus on newspaper reading as an essential habit for students. His articles and videos aim at finding solutions to the general queries of students and hence he believes in being students' editor, preparing them not just for any exam but helping them to become informed citizens. This is where he makes his teaching profession meet journalism. He is also the editor of UPSC Essentials' monthly magazine for the aspirants. He is a recipient of the Dip Chand Memorial Award, the Lala Ram Mohan Prize and Prof. Papiya Ghosh Memorial Prize for academic excellence. He was also awarded the University's Post-Graduate Scholarship for pursuing M.A. in History where he chose to specialise in Ancient India due to his keen interest in Archaeology. He has also successfully completed a Certificate course on Women's Studies by the Women's Studies Development Centre, DU. As a part of N.S.S in the past, Manas has worked with national and international organisations and has shown keen interest and active participation in Social Service. He has led and been a part of projects involving areas such as gender sensitisation, persons with disability, helping slum dwellers, environment, adopting our heritage programme. He has also presented a case study on 'Psychological stress among students' at ICSQCC- Sri Lanka. As a compere for seminars and other events he likes to keep his orating hobby alive. His interests also lie in International Relations, Governance, Social issues, Essays and poetry. ... Read More
NDTV
3 days ago
- Politics
- NDTV
PM Modi To Visit Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple In Tamil Nadu: All About It
Prime Minister Narendra Modi is set to visit Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple in Tamil Nadu's Ariyalur district today, as part of the concluding ceremony of the Aadi Thiruvathirai festival. During the visit, the Prime Minister will take part in a series of events, including the release of a commemorative coin and the offering of Ganga water at the ancient Brihadisvara Temple. The once-imperial Chola capital has been transformed into a festive hub for the occasion, with garlands, flags, and heightened security arrangements in place. Over 2,000 police personnel have been deployed ahead of the high-profile visit. PM Modi is on a two-day visit to Tamil Nadu, having arrived on July 26. All About The Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple The Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple is located in the Ariyalur district of Tamil Nadu, in the town of the same name. The temple was built by the Chola emperor Rajendra I and completed in 1035 CE to commemorate his victorious northern expedition. It is an example of Dravidian architecture, featuring intricate carvings and sculptures from the Chola period. The principal deity of the temple is Lord Shiva, worshipped in the form of a 13-foot-tall Shiva Lingam. The temple tower, or vimana, rises to a height of 55 metres, making it one of the tallest in India. The temple stands on an elevated plinth and features a courtyard that measures 170 metres in length and 98 metres in width. The main structure of the temple is 341 feet long and 100 feet wide. The temple is part of the "Great Living Chola Temples", a group of UNESCO World Heritage Sites that also includes the Brihadeeswara Temple in Thanjavur and the Airavatesvara Temple in Darasuram. The name "Gangaikonda Cholapuram" means "the city of the Chola who conquered the Ganga", referring to Rajendra I's military expedition to northern India, during which pots of Ganga water were brought back to the south. Rajendra I shifted the Chola capital from Thanjavur to Gangaikonda Cholapuram, which remained the imperial capital for over 250 years. The city was fortified with both inner and outer defensive walls, as revealed by archaeological excavations. The outer fortification was made of burnt bricks, measuring six to eight feet in width and filled with sand between two layers of brick walls. While the capital once housed many temples, most were destroyed in later centuries, and only the main Shiva temple survives today. The temple was re-consecrated in 2017, with the installation of a new dwajasthambam (flagstaff) and the performance of maha kumbhabhishekam rituals.
New Indian Express
6 days ago
- Politics
- New Indian Express
Rajendra Chola birth anniversary fete begins at Ariyalur; PM to attend finale on July 27
ARIYALUR/CHENNAI: The birth anniversary celebrations of Chola emperor Rajendra I (Aadi Thiruvathirai festival) commenced on Wednesday at the historic Brihadeeswarar temple in Gangaikondacholapuram in Ariyalur. Prime Minister Narendra Modi will be the chief guest for the grand finale of the festival scheduled for July 27, announced the union government. At an event to mark the commencement of the festival, Finance Minister Thangam Thennarasu, who also holds the archaeology portfolio, said the DMK government in 2021 declared Aadi Thiruvathirai as Rajendra Chola's official birth anniversary based on historical research. He credited historian Kudavayil Balasubramanian for identifying, through detailed epigraphic studies, that Rajendra Chola was born in the Thiruvathirai star of the Tamil month of Aadi, and not in Margazhi as previously believed. Transport Minister SS Sivasankar, who was present on the occasion, said, 'When Rajendra Chola designed the temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram, he intentionally built the tower shorter than that of Thanjavur's Brihadeeswarar temple, out of respect for his father Rajaraja Chola. He didn't want to be seen as a son who surpassed his father. In today's political scenario, many must reflect on this Chola message.' Tourism Minister K Ramachandran, Information and Publicity Minister MP Saminathan, and VCK leader Thirumavalavan also took part in the event. Meanwhile, a release said Kalakshetra Foundation will stage a special Bharatanatyam group recital, followed by Devaram Thirumurai chanting by traditional Othuvars during the festival. A booklet on Devaram hymns, published by the Sahitya Akademi, will be formally released. The festival will conclude with a musical presentation by music maestro Ilaiyaraaja and his troupe. The release said objectives of the festival include highlighting the profound philosophical roots of Shaiva Siddhanta and the role of Tamil in its dissemination, honouring the contributions of the Nayanmars to the spiritual fabric of Tamil culture, and celebrating the extraordinary legacy of Rajendra Chola I and the Chola dynasty.
India Today
22-05-2025
- General
- India Today
How Rajendra I Chola became ruler of the seas and led an expedition to far East
TS Rajendra was a Navy training ship commissioned on April 2, 1972. This legendary vessel was named after Rajendra I Chola the Great, who conquered parts of Southeast Asia during the early mediaeval period. It was under his reign that Indian culture travelled to the distant shores of Southeast conquered regions of present-day Indonesia, Myanmar, Vietnam, Sri Lanka, Maldives, Thailand, Singapore, Cambodia, and the Nicobar Islands. At its height, the Chola Empire commanded vast maritime Chola ruled for 30 years, from 1014 CE to 1044 CE, and is often referred to as Rajendra Chola the Great. Throughout history, we have heard of kings who ruled vast territories -- Alexander the Great, for example, who dominated Europe and the Middle East. Similarly, the Roman Empire left a lasting legacy, having governed all of Europe and parts of Rajendra I Chola, the Chola Empire's trade boundaries extended as far as Song China, and this was facilitated through connections with the Khmer Empire who are renowned for constructing the largest Hindu temple, Angkor famous expedition of Rajendra I Chola to Srivijaya (present-day Indonesia) forever changed the political and cultural influence of the empire far in the Cholas also had trade links with the Arab world and Africa, establishing a far-reaching commercial Cholas were not only known as skilled warriors and capable administrators, but were also accomplished builders. One notable achievement is the construction of Brihadeeswarar Temple at Thanjavur, built by Rajaraja I Chola, father of Rajendra I, in 1010 its height, the temple became one of the wealthiest in the region. It also served as an administrative centre, supporting activities related to social welfare and public SR Balasubrahmanyam records that Rajaraja gifted over 38,000 gold coins -- more than many European courts of the time. Alongside jewels and silver seized from defeated rivals, his offerings totalled nearly 95,500 gold coins. Chola empire under Rajendra I (Image: Wikimedia Commons) RISE OF THE CHOLASIndian history records two Chola dynasties from Southern India -- one as early as the 2nd and 3rd centuries BCE, and the other, the Imperial Cholas, to which Rajendra I belonged. The latter dynasty was based in Thanjavur and rose to power after defeating the Pallavas. Founded by Vijayalaya Chola, historians debate the lineage connection between the early and later Sailendra Nath Sen writes in Ancient Indian History and Civilisation, 'Vijayalaya, a descendant of the Early Cholas, reestablished (or founded) the Chola empire in 848 CE.'Around 850 CE, Vijayalaya Chola, seized Thanjavur from the Muttarayars during a conflict between the Pandyas and Pallavas, laying the foundation for the Imperial Chola Aditya I, the Cholas allied with the Pallavas to defeat the Pandyas in 885 CE and expanded into the Kannada the later years, the Cholas fought not only the southern powers but a major land-dominant dynasty, Rashtrkutas who ruled in ancient and mediaeval William Dalrymple notes in The Golden Road, 'The Chola dynasty grew to become the most powerful of all South Indian empires after defeating their rivals -- the Pallavas, their one-time overlords.'The Chola control over the entire southern coastline is remembered today in the Tamil term for the eastern coast -- Coromandel, which is a corruption of Cholamandala, meaning "Circle of Chola Rule."An eleventh-century Chinese bureaucrat offered a vivid glimpse into the grandeur of the Chola empire, writing:"The crown of the [Chola]" ruler is decorated with luminous pearls and rare precious stones. He is often at war with various kingdoms of Western Heaven [India]. The kingdom has sixty thousand war elephants. There are almost 10,000 female servants, 3,000 of whom alternate every day to serve at the court."advertisementThis account reflects not only the wealth and opulence of the Chola court but also the vast military strength and intricate administrative sophistication of one of South India's most powerful empires. Shiva as the lord of dance, Chola dynasty (Image: Wikimedia Commons) Verily, it was during the reign of Rajaraja Chola I that the venerable image of Nataraja -- Shiva as the cosmic dancer -- was drawn forth from the mists of sacred devotion and placed squarely at the heart of the Chola vision of divine the origins of this form lay in the fervent Tamil bhakti of earlier centuries, it was under Rajaraja's discerning furtherance that Natraja Shiva assumed new I CHOLA THE GREATRajendra Chola I rose to the throne in 1014 CE, after the death of Rajaraja I Chola. Even though nominated heir in 1012, it was only with Rajaraja's death that Rajendra finally came into his own as the chief force behind the Chola Empire's emergence as a power who ruled south-east Asia for the early 11th century, Rajendra Chola wanted to expand as well as legitimise his rule with bold and unorthodox tactics. He invested his sons with regalia taken from conquered enemies, naming them as "Chola Lord of Lanka" and "Chola-Pandya" to establish Chola his most dramatic action was the pursuit of a digvijaya -- a victory of the directions, aimed not just to add more territory to his empire, but to announce himself as universal emperor, with authority emanating to all points of the known world. Rajndra I Chola in Battle (Image: Wikimedia Commons) To an extent, it could be said that it was Rajaraja I who directed the Chola forces to penetrate into land to far east which not only covered land but mighty ocean first started to set about securing his grip on Sri Lanka, which in some parts had been conquered during Rajaraja I, completing a campaign begun by his father. He took King Mahinda 5 captive and subjugated the whole island to Chola power for the first initial military effectiveness and martial qualities of Rajendra I Chola were honed by campaigns against the Western Chalukyas and the kingdom of Anuradhapura, in addition to crushing rebellions in the regions of Chera and achievements of these regions not only consolidated the empire's southern border but also cemented Rajendra's status as a strategist who mastered I Chola expanded the influence of the empire by conquering Kalinga and Vengi and then defeated the Palas of Bengal, after which he was titled Gangaikonda Cholan, or "The Chola who conquered the Ganges".To mark the triumph, he established Gangaikondacholapuram, an imperial new capital which was a trade centre, administrative centre, and hub of cultural far from the Indian mainland, Rajendra gained control over Laccadive or Lakshdweep and the Maldives, which were the key islands on Indian Ocean trade routes connecting the Arab and African I CHOLA'S SEA EXPEDITIONS TO THE EASTHaving the ambition to establish dominance over the seas, Rajendra I led campaigns years after his accession to the throne, reaching the Far East, including Sumatra and other nearby empires. Seal of Rajendra I Chola found in far east (Image: Wikimedia commons) The first to be hit was Srivijaya (present-day Indonesia and Sumatra), which held a major point on the sea route to Majumdar writes in the overseas expedition of Rajendra Chola: "The attacks by one of the alliances of the Cholas on Sri Vijaya, the Khmer Empire under Suryavarman I, allowed Rajendra I to cross the seas and help Suryavarman.""As both the Khmer and the Cholas were Hindu kingdoms, their alliance was predominant. To counter this, Tambralinga of the Malay Peninsula turned to Srivijaya, whose rulers were Buddhists. Thus, it was set in motion a series of hostilities that culminated in the famed Chola naval expedition against Srivijaya," he writes campaign conquered parts of the Srivijaya empire, including regions such as Kedah, Tambralinga, and Pegu, extending Chola influence deep into Southeast the campaign, the Cholas sacked the capitals Kadaram and Pannai on Sumatra, and Malaiyur on the Malay Chola invasion did not only mark a military victory, but also the extensive proliferation of Tamil commercial activities beyond the seas of the east. Merchant guilds of ancient prestige -- like the Manigramam, the brave Ayyavole, and the famous Ainnurruvar -- did venture far into the vibrant ports of South-East for the greater part of a century to come, the business of trade and commerce in those far-off lands came to be directed, indeed controlled, by the hardworking hands of Tamil influence of this lasted for centuries, and records also show that a later branch of the Cholas ruled parts of Southeast Asia until the 16th century and contributed largely to the region's history. Charter issued by Rajendra I Chola (Image: Wikimedia Commons) It was then, under Rajendra I Chola, that the Tamil diaspora turned hand to an extensive expansion. Tamil temples began to appear along China's shores and across Southeast findings -- Tamil inscriptions, trade artifacts, and even adornments like a wedding necklace on an Arab or Indonesian bride of a Tamil trader -- testify to the rich cross-cultural exchange of these language of the Sumatran Karo tribe still carries dozens of Tamil loanwords -- a living testimony to the global influence of the Chola was the dominance of Rajendra I Chola on land and seas that made him The Great Rajendra I Chola, and it was his naval expedition that connected the Far East with southern India and established the exchange of trade and culture for Watch
